Utome  ano  Scbool  Series 

Edited  by  PAUL  MONROE,  Ph.D. 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 
IN  VIRGINIA 


?Home  anfc  Scbool  Series 

Edited  by  PAUL   MONROE,   Ph.D. 


EDUCATION  THROUGH  PLAY. 

By  Henry  S.  Curtis,  former  Secretary  of  Playground 
Association  of  America  and  Supervisor  of  Play- 
grounds of  the  District  of  Columbia. 

PRACTICAL  CONDUCT  OF  PLAY. 
By  Henry  S.  Curtis. 

FROEBEL'S   KINDERGARTEN   PRINCIPLES 
CRITICALLY  EXAMINED. 
By  William  Heard  Kilpatrick,  Ph.D.,  Associate 
Professor  of  Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University. 

THE  ART  OF  EDUCATION. 

By  Ira  W.  Howerth,  Ph.D.,  Director  of  University 
Extension  Division,  University  of  California. 

A   HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA. 

By  Cornelius  J.  Heatwole,  Department  of  Edu- 
cation, State  Normal  School  for  Women,  Harrison- 
burg, Va, 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 
IN  VIRGINIA 


BY 


CORNELIUS   J.   HEATWOLE,   B.S.,  A.M. 
1 1 

PROFESSOR   OF   EDUCATION   IN   THE    STATE    NORMAL 
SCHOOL,    HARRISONBURG,    VIRGINIA 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1916 

AU  rights  reserved 


COPYBIOHT,   1916, 

By  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  May,  1916. 


NottootrtJ  $«?$» 
J.  S.  Cushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


DEDICATED    TO    THE    MEMORY    OF 

WILLIAM  H.   RUFFNER 

THE   FIRST    STATE    SUPERINTENDENT   OF   PUBLIC   INSTRUCTION 
WHO   LIT   THE    TORCH   OF    PUBLIC    EDUCATION   IN   VIRGINIA 


JOSEPH  D.  EGGLESTON 

STATE    SUPERINTENDENT   OF   PUBLIC   INSTRUCTION  FROM 

1906-1918,     WHO     HELD     THE     TORCH     HIGH     UNTIL 

ITS   LIGHT   PENETRATED    THE   REMOTEST 

PARTS    OF    THE   STATE 


357324 


PREFACE 

In  the  preparation  of  this  volume,  I  have 
been  actuated  by  a  desire  to  make  the  history 
of  Education  in  Virginia  accessible  to  teachers 
and  students,  and  to  place  it  within  the  reach 
of  all  who  have  any  wish  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  story  of  the  educational  progress  of 
the  State. 

It  need  not  be  said  that  it  is  impossible  to 
describe  within  the  limits  of  this  volume  the 
whole  history  of  education  in  Virginia.  Out 
of  the  mass  of  material  which  would  have  filled 
many  volumes,  the  effort  has  been  made  to 
select  only  the  essential  facts  and  tell  a  brief 
story  of  the  growth  centering  about  these  salient 
features. 

Throughout  the  course  of  this  book,  I  have 
tried  to  acknowledge  in  the  text  the  valuable 
help  I  have  received  from  numerous  published 
works;    but  it  gives  me  pleasure  to  record  my 

vii 


PREFACE 

special  indebtedness  to  Dr.  Lyon  G.  Tyler, 
President  of  William  and  Mary  College,  who 
supplied  me  with  the  valuable  fruits  of  his  own 
difficult  and  original  research;  to  my  wife, 
Sue  Porter  Heatwole,  for  a  piece  of  research  in 
the  files  of  The  Virginia  Gazette;  to  Mr.  E.  G. 
Swem,  of  the  Virginia  State  Library  at  Rich- 
mond, for  courtesies  in  making  available  valu- 
able documents ;  to  President  Joseph  D.  Eggles- 
ton,  of  Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute,  Blacks- 
burg,  Virginia,  for  suggestions  and  personal 
papers ;  to  President  Edwin  A.  Alderman,  of  the 
University  of  Virginia,  for  his  sympathetic  inter- 
est and  timely  suggestions ;  to  Professor  James 
C.  Johnston,  of  the  State  Normal  School,  Harri- 
sonburg, Virginia,  who  read  the  manuscript  and 
offered  suggestions  as  to  its  form ;  and  to  Doctor 
Paul  Monroe,  of  Teachers  College,  New  York, 
for  his  never  failing  interest,  his  scholarly  and 
suggestive  advice  and  criticism. 

CORNELIUS  J.   HEATWOLE. 

State  Normal  School, 

Harrisonburg,  Virginia, 

March  1,  1916. 

viii 


INTRODUCTION 

Life  in  colonial  Virginia  was  more  nearly  a 
reproduction  of  English  society  than  that  in 
any  other  colony.  In  his  famous  sermon  be- 
fore Lord  Delaware  and  his  company  on  the  eve 
of  their  departure  for  the  colony,  the  Cambridge 
divine,  Cranshaw,  said,  refuting  the  charge 
that  the  Virginia  settlers  were  the  offscouring 
of  England  —  "They  are  like  those  left  behind, 
even  of  all  sorts  better  and  worse."  The  Rev. 
Hugh  Jones,  writing  in  1724  on  "The  Present 
State  of  Virginia,"  stated  that  the  gentry 
"live  in  a  neat  manner,  dress  after  the  same 
modes  and  beha>e  themselves  exactly  *as  the 
gentry  in  London."  Even  more  to  the  point, 
so  far  as  this  study  is  concerned,  is  the  famous 
reply  of  Governor  Berkeley  in  1671  to  the  in- 
quiry of  the  home  government  as  to  the  course 
taken  concerning   churches   and   schools.     The 


INTRODUCTION 

governor  replied,  "The  same  course  that  is 
taken  in  England  out  of  town;  every  man  ac- 
cording to  his  ability  instructing  his  children." 
Another  portion  of  the  testy  old  governor's 
reply,  thanking  God  that  there  were  no  free 
schools  or  printing,  is  often  quoted,  but  the 
really  significant  statement  quoted  above  is 
seldom  given. 

Neither  the  efforts  nor  the  needs  of  a  sparsely 
settled  frontier  country,  no  matter  how  well- 
to-do  the  aristocratic  class,  could  be  expected 
to  result  in  an  extensive  system  of  schools. 
The  apprentice  education  for  the  laboring  class 
confined  to  agriculture;  tutorial  education  in 
the  homes  of  the  wealthy  landed  proprietors ; 
endowed  Latin  grammar  schools  for  youth  as- 
piring to  the  professions;  a  university  for  the 
training  of  teachers  in  church  and  common- 
wealth —  this  was  the  plan  of  education 
evolved.  It  closely  paralleled  the  educational 
N  scheme  which  sufficed  in  England  until  near 
the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

For  the  first  three  quarters  of  a  century  of 
our   national   existence,   Virginia's   educational 


INTRODUCTION 

problem  was  more  complicated  than  that  of 
most  of  her  sister  states.  In  politics  she  had 
accepted  a  democratic  government,  while  her 
society  was  organized  on  an  aristocratic  basis. 
A  system  of  human  slavery  was  also  included 
which  hindered  any  radical  modification  of  the 
actual  social  structure  by  the  new  political 
theories.  However,  these  theories  had  their 
natural  result  in  the  field  of  education,  and  a 
system  of  free  schools  was  instituted  by  law, 
based  on  a  general  state  fund  —  the  Literary 
Fund  —  which  was  generous  for  the  times  and 
probably  as  adequate  a  beginning  as  that  made 
by  other  states. 

y  Few  if  any  of  the  so-called  free  school  sys- 
tems of  the  ante-bellum  period  were  in  reality 
free.  All  were  founded  on  a  combination  of 
appropriations  from  state  and  local  funds  with 
large  contributions  from  the  parents  of  the 
pupils  in  the  form  of  rates  for  tuition.  In  New 
York  and  New  England  the  state  and  local 
funds  were  used  to  support  in  each  locality  a 
free  school  for  a  period.  This  being  in  almost 
all  instances  short,  the  school  was  continued  as 

xi 


INTRODUCTION 

a  pay  school,  rates  for  tuition  being  collected 
from  the  pupils.  Naturally  the  poorer  chil- 
dren dropped  out  and  the  public  school  became 
a  private  school.  In  Pennsylvania  and  other 
states  farther  south  the  public  funds  were 
used  to  pay  the  tuition  charges  of  all  children 
whose  parents  were  not  able  to  pay,  and  the 
school  was  not  free  to  the  well-to-do  for  any 
part  of  the  year.  Consequently  the  free  school 
became  a  "charity  school"  or  a  "pauper  school" 
and  could  not  thrive  in  a  country  where  demo- 
cratic principles  were  professed.  However,  it 
is  to  be  noted  that  this  charity  school  plan  was 
quite  in  accord  with  the  individualistic  senti- 
ments then  generally  accepted  in  all  the  states, 
—  principles  which  were  commonly  identified 
with  democracy  and  quite  as  commonly  op- 
posed to  any  increase  of  governmental  ac- 
tivity. Pennsylvania  and  the  newer  western 
states,  some  of  which  had  followed  the  charity 
school  plan,  in  time  abandoned  it  for  a  school 
system  which  was  free  in  fact  as  well  as  in 
name.  Virginia,  with  her  dominant  aristo- 
cratic   sentiment    and    under  the  fundamental 

xii 


INTRODUCTION 

economic  influence  of  the  system  of  slavery,  was 
unable  to  do  this.  But,  hated  by  its  supposed 
beneficiaries,  scorned  or  manipulated  by  those 
responsible  for  its  administration,  the  charity 
school  could  not  thrive. 

After  the  war  the  problem  remained.  Com- 
plicated by  economic  impoverishment  and  the 
burden  of  the  freedmen,  free  public  education 
which  previously  seemed  undesirable  now 
seemed  impossible  even  if  desirable.  Yet  a 
free  school  system  was  adopted  and  earnest 
efforts  were  made  to  materialize  all  its  features. 
Nevertheless  much  of  the  old  aristocratic  op- 
position remained  and  much  indifference  was 
evident. 

Two  decades  passed  and  another  era  opened. 
The  new  heart  of  a  broader  social  vision,  the 
new  blood  of  economic  energy,  the  new  nerves 
of  renewed  political  life,  revivified  the  educa- 
tional system.  Out  of  the  "new  south"  came 
the  "educational  revival."  Virginia  with  her 
neighboring  states  formed  the  vanguard  in 
that  movement  in  which  all  of  our  common- 
wealths must  engage  if  our  nation  is  to  retain 

xiii 


INTRODUCTION 

its  leadership,  in  that  effort  to  make  political 
right  practicable,  the  distribution  of  economic 
good  equitable,  the  dissemination  of  intelli- 
gence universal,  the  participation  of  the  com- 
mon man  in  the  racial  achievements  assured. 
Never  before  has  democracy  been  so  put  to 
the  test  as  it  is  now  and  will  be  in  the  coming 
generations.  Education  offers  the  greatest  hope 
for  the  successful  meeting  of  the  issue.  But  it 
must  be  an  education  which  affects  every 
member  of  society,  giving  him  efficiency  in  con- 
tributing to  the  welfare  and  the  progress  of 
society,  and  at  the  same  time  fitting  him  for  a 
satisfactory  life  of  his  own. 

Toward  this  goal  the  new  education  is  striv- 
ing. Virginia  has  definitely  committed  herself 
to  this  new  crusade.  To  the  training  of  the 
teachers  upon  whom  the  greater  burden  falls 
every  support  should  be  given.  Instruction 
which  makes  clear  to  them  the  setting  as  well 
as  the  object  of  their  work,  which  shows  what 
has  been  overcome  as  well  as  what  remains  to 
be  done,  is  of  value.  To  this  end,  this  volume 
of  Mr.  Heatwole,  accurate  in  fact,  judicial  in 

xiv 


INTRODUCTION 

temper,  loyal  in  its  ideals,  cannot  fail  to  be  of 

definite   value   to   every   teacher   of   "the   old 

Dominion." 

Paul  Monroe. 

New  York, 
March,  1916. 


xv 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGES 

Introduction ix-xv 

v  I.   Education  in  England  at  the  Time 

of  the  Settlements  in  America  1-15 

j  II.   Antecedents  of  the  Virginia  Col- 
onists;     Social    and     Political 
Conditions  Affecting  Education        16-26 
-  III.   The  Rise  of  Elementary  Schools  in 

Virginia 27-39 

f  IV.   Early  Attempts  to  Establish  Free 

Schools  in  Virginia      .        .        .        40-61 
V.   Higher     Education     in     Virginia 
during     the     seventeenth     and 
Eighteenth  Centuries  .        .        .        62-68 
VI.   William  and  Mary  College     .        .        69-99 
VII.   First  State  Support  of  Public  Edu- 
cation           100-123 

VIII.   Period  of  the  Academies         .        .     124-136 
IX.   Higher     Education     in    Virginia, 

1775-1860         137-170 

X.  State  Institutions  for  Higher 
Learning.  University  of  Vir- 
ginia             171-198 

xvii 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGES 

XI.  State  Institutions  for  Higher 
Learning.  State  Schools  of 
Technology  ....     199-209 

»    XII.  A    State    Public    School    System 

Inaugurated 210-245 

XIII.  Subsequent   Development    of    the 

Public  Free  School  System         .    246-261 

XIV.  Development  of  City  School  Sys- 

tems              262-279 

XV.  Higher  Education  for  Women  in 

Virginia 280-304 

XVI.   Educational  Renaissance   in   Vir- 
ginia             305-320 

XVII.   Modern    Period    of    Educational 

Achievement           ....    321-348 
XVIII.   Education  of  the  Negroes  in  Vir- 
ginia             349-365 

XIX.   Special  Technical  Schools      .        .    366-373 

Bibliography 375-377 

Index 379-382 


xvm 


A  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION 
IN  VIRGINIA 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN 
VIRGINIA 

CHAPTER  I 

EDUCATION   IN   ENGLAND   AT   THE   TIME   OF   THE 
SETTLEMENTS    IN   AMERICA 

yThe  Roots  of  American  Institutions.  —  The 
roots  of  American  institutions  are  to  be  found 
particularly  in  England,  whence  came  the  early 
settlers  of  America.  This  is  particularly  true 
of  early  Virginia  institutions.  Many  laws  of 
England  were  put  into  force  and  remained  in 
force  for  some  time  in  Virginia  during  the 
early  years  of  the  Virginia  colony.-  These 
laws  were  abandoned  only  when  the  condi- 
tions in  the  new  country  were  such  as  to  de- 
mand new  and  different  methods  of  meeting 
the  various  governmental  problems.1 

The  apprenticeship  laws  of  1672,  in  force  in 
Virginia  at  that  time,  were  exactly  the  same 

1  See  "  Institutional  History  of  Virginia,"  Bruce,  Vol.  I,  pp.  465-67. 

B  1 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION   IN  VIRGINIA 

as  the  English  laws  governing  apprentices  in 
that  country.  The  following  extract  from  the 
old  Virginia  laws  indicates  this  fact: 

That  the  justices  of  the  peace  in  any  county  doe 
put  the  laws  of  England  against  vagrants  and  idlers  and 
dissolute  persons  in  strict  execution,  and  the  respective 
county  court  shall  and  are  hereby  empowered  and  author- 
ized to  place  out  all  children  whose  parents  are  not  able 
to  bring  them  up  apprentices  to  tradesmen.1 

The  English  church  was  transplanted  bodily 
to  Virginia  soil.  Social  customs,  forms  of 
government,  and  educational  institutions  were 
patterned  after  those  of  England,  if  not  trans- 
ferred in  identical  form  to  Virginia.  That  we 
may  better  understand  this  interesting  historical 
fact,  it  is  well  to  take  a  brief  view  of  some 
educational  institutions  in  England  at  the  time 
Virginia  was  being  settled. 

The  Church  and  Education  in  England.  — 
The  history  of  education  in  England  is  closely 
connected  with  the  history  of  the  church  in  that 
country.  There  was  no  general  legislation  re- 
garding education  during  the  early  centuries 
of  English  national  life.     It  is  an  interesting 

i  Hening,  Vol.  II,  p.  298. 


EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND 

fact  that  the  English  nation  was  the  last  among 
the  great  nations  of  Europe  to  develop  a  na- 
tional system  of  education.  America,  even, 
with  her  unique  system  of  state  education, 
preceded  England  by  half  a  century  or  more  in 
developing  an  effective  system  of  education  for 
the  American  people.  Between  1539  and  1833 
there  was  no  legislation  in  England  encouraging 
schools,  except  a  few  acts  concerning  colleges 
and  secondary  schools. 

The  Dissolution  of  the  Monasteries.  —  The 
dissolution  of  the  monasteries  by  Henry  VIII 
in  1539  transferred  to  the  king  about  one  thou- 
sand religious  institutions.  Among  other  or- 
ganized activities  connected  with  these  institu- 
tions was  the  care  of  the  vast  number  of  poor 
in  England,  which  consisted  of  about  one-sixth 
of  the  total  population.  By  means  of  vast 
tracts  of  land  owned  by  these  religious  organi- 
zations, they  were  able  by  rents  to  collect  the 
means  by  which  to  care  for  the  material  wants 
and  give  training  to  the  poor  of  the  realm. 
This  sweeping  bit  of  legislation  transferred  to 
the  king  the  enormous  responsibility  of  caring 

3 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

for  the  poor.  By  way  of  meeting  this  new  re- 
sponsibility, Parliament  passed  that  remarkable 
series  of  acts  known  as  the  "  Poor  Laws,"  which, 
while  not  educational  in  their  intent,  neverthe- 
less formed  the  basis  for  the  training  of  a  vast 
number  of  children  in  the  simple  arts  of  life. 

Apprenticeship  and  Poor  Laws.  —  A  series 
of  acts  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III  formed  the 
basis  for  the  apprenticing  of  all  the  unemployed 
in  the  realm.  The  main  features  of  these  laws 
were:  (1)  any  one  not  apprenticed  should  be 
bound  to  the  first  applicant;  (2)  wages  were  set 
by  law,  and  in  the  case  of  any  one  receiving 
higher  wages,  the  apprentice  and  the  one  to 
whom  he  was  bound  were  punished;  (3)  these 
laws  were  enforced  by  the  magistrates  (civil 
officers),  who  belonged  to  the  gentry  class,  and, 
in  this  way,  the  upper  class  was  in  complete 
control  of  the  lower  or  dependent  class;  (4)  the 
statutes  of  labor  provided  that  any  one  not  em- 
ployed could  be  forced  to  be  bound  to  a  man  for 
husbandry;  (5)  women  unmarried  between  the 
ages  of  twelve  and  forty  could  be  forced  into 
service,  especially  at  harvest  time;  (6)  it  was 

4 


EDUCATION   IN  ENGLAND 

necessary  that  parents  who  apprenticed  a  child 
should  own  a  certain  amount  of  property; 
(7)  the  master  of  the  apprentice  was  bound 
to  give  to  his  ward  all  the  arts,  secrets,  and 
mysteries  of  the  trade;  (8)  no  apprentice  could 
quit  work  without  the  consent  of  two  magis- 
trates. 

All  this  was  a  form  of  teaching  where  the 
master  was  responsible  for  the  teaching.  In 
Virginia  these  same  laws  were  carried  out  in 
the  early  period  of  the  colony.  In  England 
these  laws  sought  to  place  the  populace  under 
the  control  of  the  gentry  class.  If  any  one  was  I 
able  to  work  and  did  not,  he  was  punished  by 
longer  service  under  the  master.  At-the  second 
offence  one  ear  was  cropped,  and  at  the  third 
offence  he  was  put  to  death.  There  are  on  the, 
statute  books  of  England  as  many  as  eighty 
offences  punishable  by  death. 

Direct  Tax  for  the  Support  of  the  Poor.  —  In 
1553  two  officers  were  appointed  in  each  com- 
munity or  county  to  collect  money  for  the  sup- 
port  of  the  poor.  They  had  the  power  after- 
ward to  force  those  able  to  give,  to  contribute 

5      K 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

to  this  cause.  This  is  known  as  the  "  first 
relief  "  of  the  poor  and  was  spoken  of  as  "  vol- 
untary gifts." 

There  are  two  interesting  aspects  of  these  laws : 
(1)  the  state's  responsibility  for  providing  in- 
dustrial training  for  the  poor,  and  (2)  the  right 
to  levy  taxes  for  securing  funds  for  this  training. 

The  main  purposes  of  these  acts  were:  (1)  to 
put  all  children  to  work;  (2)  to  put  all  adults  to 
work;  (3)  to  furnish  hemp,  flax,  etc.,  —  material 
for  the  children  to  work  with;  and  (4)  the 
support  of  the  deaf  and  the  blind. 

These  were  the  practical  provisions  of  the 
Poor  Laws  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  social 
system  of  England  and  the  basis  of  the  laws  of 
America  whereby  the  poor  were  trained. 

Summary  of  the  English  Poor  Laws.  —  From 
1563  to  1597  the  English  Poor  Laws  contained 
the  following  provisions:  (1)  the  requirement 
that  all  youth  not  of  independent  living  should 
be  bound  to  masters ;  (2)  the  distinct  obligation 
of  those  in  authority  to  provide  for  the  appren- 
ticing of  all  such  children.  From  1597  to  1661 
there  was  further  development  of  these  laws, 

6 


EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND 

providing  (1)  that  the  overseers  of  the  poor 
should  furnish  materials  to  be  used  by  the  poor 
children;  (2)  that  these  officers  should  have  the 
power  to  use  the  funds  procured  from  a  general 
tax  rate  for  the  support  of  these  apprenticed 
children;  and  (3)  that  these  overseers  should 
have  the  right  to  purchase  material  for  the 
use  of  the  children. 

These  laws  are  the  basis  of  all  early  colonial 
plans  for  education  in  America.  Virginia  fol- 
lowed them  more  strictly  than  the  other  colonies. 

Privileges  of  the  Schoolmasters.  —  School- 
masters were  favored  remarkably  by  being 
exempt  from  taxes  and  "  ordinary  payment  " 
and  personal  service  usually  charged  upon  other 
subjects.  In  1582  all  schoolmasters  were  as- 
sessed, and  there  being  some  question  about  the 
rights  of  schoolmasters,  they  sent  a  petition  to 
the  Chancellor  and  Lord  of  Exchequer,  praying 
that  they  be  relieved  from  this  unusual  action  of 
the  assessors.  The  court  decided /In  favor  of 
the  schoolmasters,  and  they  continued  to  enjoy 
their  usual  privileges.  This  is  probably  the 
first  instance  of  combining  among  schoolmasters. 

7 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

In  matters  of  religion  the  schoolmaster  was 
allowed  no  freedom.  The  Oath  of  Supremacy 
(Statute  5,  Elizabeth,  1562-3)  was  administered 
to  all  schoolmasters  and  private  teachers  of 
children.  Many  of  the  grammar  foundations 
became  elementary  schools.  With  the  changes 
in  religious  controversies  and  the  changes  in 
the  rulers,  the  teaching  in  the  grammar  schools 
was  more  than  elementary  training.  Latin  was 
the  core  of  the  curriculum.  A  knowledge  of 
this  language  was  necessary  for  the  learned  and 
state  officials.  Without  Latin,  the  social  ma- 
chinery of  the  land  would  have  been  clogged. 
In  every  manor  was  found  some  one  who  could 
write  and  keep  accounts  in  Latin.  It  was  the 
language  of  the  ecclesiastics;  their  rubrics, 
canons,  liturgies,  and  the  Bible  itself  were 
written  in  Latin.  Ecclesiastical  correspondence 
all  over  the  world  was  in  this  language. 

The  one  main  object  of  the  grammar  schools 
then  was  the  teaching  of  the  Latin  language. 
The  civic,  the  ecclesiastical,  and  the  social 
demand  for  this  language  made  it  a  most 
practical  aim  in  education. 

8 


EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND 

Licensing  of  Teachers.  —  The  church  au- 
thorities maintained  the,  strictest  control  over 
the  schoolmaster.  The  training  they  gave  in 
the  schools  was  thought  of  as  a  preparation  for 
taking  part  in  the  church  service  and  npt  so 
much  a  matter  of  preparing  the  children  for 
citizenship  or  vocational  activity.  For  this 
reason,  it  was  very  important  that  the  clergy 
of  the  Church  of  England  control  the  content 
of  the  teaching  in  the  schools ;  so  from  1560 
to  1640  there  are  records  of  various  orders  sent 
out  by  the  bishops  to  the  parish  clergy,  mak- 
ing inquiry  into  the  condition  of  the  schools 
and  the  schoolmasters  within  their  respective 
parishes,  particularly  inquiring  into  their  re- 
ligious beliefs  and  practices.  In  1580  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  issued  a  letter  on  the  sub- 
ject of  schoolmasters  "  falling  off "  from  the 
Church  of  England,  and  ordered  that  they  be 
examined  and,  if  found  "  corrupt  or  unworthy," 
they  be  replaced  by  "fit  and  sound  persons." 
The  following  quotation  from  their  orders  shows 
the  definite  nature  of  the  demands  of  the  church 
on  this  point. 

9 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

IV  Item.  What  schoolmasters  are  within  their  parish 
and  what  their  names  are,  that  teach  publicly  or  privately 
within  any  man's  house  within  your  parish,  of  what  state, 
calling  or  condition  soever  he  or  they  be,  in  whose  house 
or  houses  any  such  schoolmaster  or  teacher  is  ? 

V  Item.  Whether  any  such  schoolmaster  or  school- 
masters is  reported  known  or  suspected  to  be  back- 
ward in  religion,  now  established  by  the  laws  of  the 
realm,  that  are  thought  any  way  to  be  secret  hinderers 
thereof  ? * 

A  statutory  act  of  the  realm  followed  these 
orders  in  1581,  which  required  teachers  to  hold 
licenses  from  the  bishop  or  ordinary,  on  pain  of 
his  allowance  being  withheld,  and  if  a  teacher 
were  found  "  teaching  youth "  contrary  to 
this  act,  he  shall  "  suffer  ymprisonment  with- 
out baile  or  maineprise  for  one  yeare."  A 
little  later  (December  12,  1582)  the  Bishop  of 
London  issued  an  order  for  all  schoolmasters, 
public  and  private,  to  be  examined,  to  the  end 
that  those  of  unsound  religion  may  be  re- 
moved.    The  form  of  the  license  was  as  follows  : 

John,  by  divine  providence  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
of  all  England,  primate  and  metropolitan :  To  all  Chris- 

1  "State  Intervention  in  English  Education,"  De  Montmorency, 
p.  94. 

10 


EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND 

tian  people  to  whom  these  presents  shall  come,  sendeth 
greeting  in  our  Lord  God  everlasting.  These  are  to  let 
you  understand  that  upon  receipt  of  sufficient  testimony 
of  the  good  life  and  conversation  of  William  Swetnam  of 
the  parish  of  St.  Margaret  Patens  in  London,  fishmonger, 
and  upon  further  examination  of  him,  being  first  sworn 
in  due  form  to  the  supremacy  of  the  Queen's  Most  Excel- 
lent Majesty  and  subscribing  to  the  articles  agreed  upon 
by  the  clergy  in  Anno  1562,  we  have  licensed  and  by  these 
presents  do  license  the  said  William  Swetnam  to  teach 
and  instruct  children  in  the  principles  of  reading  and 
introduction  into  the  accidents  and  also  to  write  and  cast 
accounts  in  any  parish  within  the  city  of  London.1 

The  license  was  to  be  in-  force  during  good 
behavior,  and  further  duties  were  enjoined 
upon  William  Swetnam  to  instruct  the  children 
in  the  catechism  and  to  bring  them  to  the 
service  on  Sabbaths  and  feast  days. 

Grammar  and  Charity  Schools  in  England.  — 
The  church  in  England  developed  two  distinct 
types  of  schools:  (1)  the  Latin  Grammar  Schools 
(secondary  schools),  and  (2)  the  Chantry  and 
Charity  Schools  (elementary  schools).  The 
only  really  effective  schools  in  England  at  the 
time   of   the   Reformation   were   the   grammar 

1  Ibid.,  p.  96. 

11 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

schools.  When  the  Chantries  were  dissolved 
(1539)  by  Henry  VIII,  the  whole  of  secondary 
education  in  England  would  have  been  swept 
away  had  not  some  of  the  provisions  for  the 
instruction  of  the  middle  classes  been  made  by 
continuing  some  of  the  educational  endowments 
which  "  pious  founders  had  previously  pro- 
vided." > 

The  Curriculum  of  the  Grammar  Schools.2  — 
The  whole  number  of  boys  in  school  was  divided 
into  five  or  six  ranks,  the  undermasters  teaching 
the  first  three  classes  and  the  head-master  the 
three  upper  classes.  No  one  was  admitted  to 
the  school  who  could  not  read  readily  and  did 
not  know  by  heart  in  the  vernacular  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  Angelic  Salutation,  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  and  the  Ten  Commandments.  The 
following  is  an  abbreviated  statement  of  what 
the  boys  studied  in  each  form  or  class : 

The  first  class.  —  The  boys  learned  the  rudi- 
ments  of   English,  put   together   the  parts  of 

1  "State  Intervention  in  English  Education,"  De  Montmorency,  p.  64 
(1902). 

2  See  Educational  Charters,  A.  F.  Leach,  pp.  465-69. 

12 


EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND 

speech,  and  were  taught  to  turn  a  short  phrase 
of  English  into  Latin. 

The  second  class.  —  The  boys  were  required 
to  know  the  genders  of  nouns,  the  inflection 
of  verbs,  written  in  Latin.  They  were  to 
run  through  Cato's  Verses,  iEsop's  Fables, 
and  Some  Familiar  Colloquies. 

The  third  class.  —  The  boys  were  given  train- 
ing in  making  sight  varyings  on  the  nouns  and 
anomalous  verbs.  They  were  to  learn  Ter- 
ence's Comedies  and  Mantuan's  Eclogues. 

The  fourth  class.  —  Here  the  boys  took  up  the 
study  of  Latin  syntax.  They  were  practised 
in  the  stories  of  the  poets  and  letters  of  learned 
men. 

The  fifth  class.  —  The  boys  committed  to 
memory  the  figures  of  Latin  oratory,  and  the 
rules  for  verse-making  and  polishing  themes. 
They  were  required  to  translate  parts  of  "  the 
chastest  poets  "  and  the  best  historians. 

The  sixth  class.  —  Here  the  boys  were  in- 
structed in  the  formulas  of  the  copiousness  of 
words  and  things,  written  by  Erasmus.  They 
learned  to  make  varyings  of  speech,  to  acquire 

13 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

the  art  of  speaking  Latin,  "  as  far  as  it  is  possi- 
ble for  boys."  They  were  required  to  "  taste  " 
Horace,  Cicero,  and  other  authors.  In  addition 
to  all  this,  they  had  exercises  in  disputation 
with  one  another,  and  also  exercises  in  declama- 
tion. All  this  they  had  that  they  might  be  well 
learned  in  the  "  school  of  argument." 

General  Summary.  —  It  will  be  observed 
from  the  foregoing  brief  statement  concerning 
some  of  the  types  of  schools  in  England  at  the 
time  America  was  settled  (1)  that  there  was  a 
system  of  caring  for  the  poor  and  apprenticed 
children,  by  teaching  them  some  of  the  simple 
trades ;  (2)  that  funds  from  the  general  tax  rate 
were  used  in  providing  materials  for  the  use  of 
these  children;  (3)  that  grammar  schools  were 
established,  largely  by  private  endowment,  the 
state  having  no  other  connection  with  them 
than  the  granting  of  charters  to  these  schools; 
(4)  that  charity  or  Chantry  schools  (elementary 
schools)  were  organized  either  by  the  church 
or  by  private  endowment;  (5)  that  teachers 
received  their  licenses  from  either  the  bishop 
or  the  king;    (6)  that  the  curriculum  for  the 

14 


EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND 

grammar  school  was  made  up  of  religious  learn- 
ing, Latin,  and  the  art  of  disputation.  With 
these  facts  in  mind,  one  is  able  to  understand 
better  the  early  educational  activities  in  Vir- 
ginia. 


15 


CHAPTER  II 

ANTECEDENTS  OF  THE  VIRGINIA  COLONISTS;  SO- 
CIAL AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS  AFFECTING 
EDUCATION 

The  Early  Settlers.  —  The  London  Company 
numbered  among  its  stockholders  some  of  the 
greatest  noblemen  of  England.  The  first 
party  landing  on  Virginia  soil  at  Jamestown  in 
1609  consisted  of  fifty -five  gentlemen  out  of 
one  hundred  persons.  Twelve  of  this  hundred 
were  servants  ;  the  rest  were  workmen.  In  the 
first  supply  were  one  hundred  persons,  thirty- 
three  of  whom  were  gentlemen.  The  rest  were 
"  laborers  and  footmen."  <  In  the  second  supply 
there  were  seventy  persons  in  all,  twenty-eight 
of  whom  were  gentlemen.  The  third  supply 
was  spoken  of  by  John  Smith  as  a  lewd 
company."  Among  them  were  "  unruly  gal- 
lants, packed  thither  by  their  friends  to  escape 
ill    destinies."     Of    the    five    hundred    persons 

16 


ANTECEDENTS  OF  THE  VIRGINIA  COLONISTS 

alive  in  Virginia  in  1609,  all  but  sixty  had  died 
by  May  of  the  following  year.1 

The  London  Company  evidently  was  not 
pleased  with  the  result  of  the  first  attempt  to 
establish  a  commercial  enterprise  in  Virginia. 
During  the  following  years  they  sought  to 
encourage  a  different  type  of  emigrants  to  settle 
in  Virginia,  —  men  who  were  more  suited  to 
the  rough  task  of  clearing  away  the  woods, 
building  huts,  and  planting  corn.  The  immi-# 
grant  vessels  were  now  filled  with  laborers, 
artisans,  tradesmen,  apprentices,  and  inden- 
tured servants.2 

In  1617,  1871  laborers  came  to  Virginia.  In 
1625  they  had  a  system  of  land  grants  which 
provided  that  for  every  servant  brought  over 
by  any  one,  one  hundred  acres  of  land  would 
be  given.3  This  system  tended  to  people 
Virginia  with  two  distinct  classes,  a  strong 
upper  or  gentry  class  and  a  large  servant  class. 
Many  of  these  tradesmen  and  "  indentured  " 

1  "Old  Virginia  and  Her  Neighbors,"  Fiske,  Vol.  I,  p.  154. 

2  "  Patrician  and  Plebeian  in  Virginia,"  Wertenbaker,  p.  9. 

3  Sir  George  Yeardley  received  15,000  acres  for  bringing  to  Virginia 
three  hundred  persons.     Proceedings  of  London  Company,  Vol.  I,  p.  160. 

c  17 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

servants  in  time  became  powerful  and  held 
important  positions  jn  the  government,  and 
later  became  influential  in  the  economic  and 
social  affairs  of  the  colony.  After  the  colony 
had  gotten  a  good  start,  there  was  opportunity 
for  amassing  wealth  in  the  tobacco  trade  and 
commerce  in  other  commodities  of  Virginia. 
In  1644  there  were  15,000  people  in  Virginia. 
In  1666  there  were  40,000.  In  1671  Gov- 
ernor Berkeley  estimated  that  1500  came  an- 
nually to  Virginia.  Many  of  these  were 
prisoners  of  war.  From  1653  to  1655  hun- 
dreds of  unfortunate  Irishmen  suffered  the 
consequence  of  their  resistance  by  being 
banished  to  the  plantation.1  The  Scotch  Re- 
bellion (1678)  was  the  occasion  of  another  ex- 
portation of  captive  soldiers  to  Virginia  'and 
elsewhere.  The  Scotch  and  the  Irish,  while 
prisoners  of  war,  were  sold  as  indentured  ser- 
vants to  the  Virginia  planters.  Some  of  these 
were  cultured  persons,  and  in  some  instances 
men  of  means.  There  are  many  instances  of 
persons   of   gentle  blood   becoming   indentured 

1  "Economic  History  of  Virginia,"  Vol.  I,  p.  609. 
18 


ANTECEDENTS  OF  THE  VIRGINIA  COLONISTS 

servants  to  lawyers  and  physicians  in  order 
to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  those  professions.1 
Tutors  were  sometimes  brought  over  from  Eng- 
land under  terms  of  indenture.  During  the 
period  from  1620  to  1750,  about  80,000  inden- 
tured servants  and  redemptioners  were  brought 
to  Virginia.2  It  will  be  understood  from  these 
figures  that  a  great  majority  of  the  people 
brought  to  Virginia  during  the  colonial  period 
were  of  the  lower  or  servant  class.  A  conten- 
tion has  arisen  among  some  historians  as  to 
whether  or  not  the  Virginia  aristocracy  de- 
veloped within  the  colony  itself  by  the  rise  of 
some  of  this  lower  class  into  economic  and  social 
influence.  Whatever  the  fact,  it  must  be  con- 
ceded that  the  Virginia  planters,  though  few 
in  number,  were  the  ruling  class  for  nearly  two 
centuries,  and  were  responsible  for  the  aris- 
tocratic type  of  society  in  Virginia. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  facts  that 
the  Virginia  colonists  were  made  up  of  three 
classes  of  people:   (1)  the  higher  class  of  cul- 

1  Ibid.,  p.  574. 

2  "  Patrician  and  Plebeian  in  Virginia,"  Wertenbaker,  p.  160. 

19 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

tured  Englishmen,  known  as  gentlemen,  includ- 
ing the  clergy ;  (2)  a  more  or  less  heterogeneous 
class  of  merchants,  tradesmen,  skilled  laborers, 
and  cultured  indentured  servants;  (3)  the 
lower  class  of  laborers  to  work  in  the  tobacco 
fields,  including  the  negro  slaves.  The  second 
class  became  in  time,  as  they  grew  economically 
independent,  more  powerful,  and  developed  into 
a  strong  middle  class  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  planters  who  came 
early  developed  the  plantation  system  which  is 
dependent  upon  a  large  servant  class.  The  people 
of  Virginia  in  the  early  colonial  period  were  often 
spoken  of  as  "gentlemen,  officers,  and  servants." 
The  Plantation  System  in  Virginia.  —  The 
London  Company  was  most  interested  in  mak- 
ing an  industrial  enterprise  out  of  the  Vir- 
ginia settlement.  The  main  purpose  was  to 
increase  English  commerce.  The  climate,  soil, 
rivers,  and  creeks  lent  themselves  readily  to 
agricultural  activities,  especially  after  the  com- 
mercial value  of  tobacco  had  been  demon- 
strated. Many  persons,  after  having  engaged 
in  mercantile  business  for  a  time,  bought  lands 

20 


ANTECEDENTS  OF  THE  VIRGINIA  COLONISTS 

and  raised  tobacco.  This  was  the  most  profit- 
able pursuit  in  the  colony,  and,  as  lands  were 
cheap  and  plentiful,  it  was  a  comparatively 
easy  matter  to  develop  the  industry  of  tobacco- 
raising  to  large  proportions.  It  required  many 
laborers  of  the  unskilled  type.  These  had  to 
be  provided  for,  and  the  living  arrangements 
necessary  for  this  large  number  of  workers 
had  to  be  considered  by  the  planters.  In 
this  way  the  plantation  system  of  carrying 
on  agricultural  activities  was  developed  in 
Virginia.  A  few  men,  by  grants  or  purchase, 
held  large  acreages,  and,  in  time,  established 
homes,  having  erected  large  mansion  houses, 
and,  with  the  income  from  the  sales  of  their 
products,  they  were  able  to  import  to  Virginia 
all  the  furnishings  in  the  way  of  comforts  and 
luxuries  that  might  be  found  in  the  well-to-do 
English  homes.  It  often  happened  that  one 
man  owned  all  the  land  within  a  radius  of  six 
or  ten  miles  of  his  mansion  house.  This 
made  him  lord  of  everything  within  that 
territory.  The  numerous  rivers  and  creeks 
were  navigable  far  inland  by  sea-going  vessels. 

21 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

The  planters  built  their  houses  along  the  rivers 
for  the  convenience  of  shipping.  The  various 
governors,  by  authority  of  the  English  sove- 
reign, made  efforts  to  establish  manufactories 
and  build  towns,  but  these  efforts  failed,  and 
Virginia  has  always  remained  an  agricultural 
and  rural  community.  The  plantation  system 
prevailed,  and  the  planters  were  the  most 
powerful  men  in  the  colony.  They,  by  reason 
of  the  vast  number  of  workmen  in  connection 
with  the  plantation,  learned  to  govern  their 
men,  and,  as  a  result,  their  power  was  felt, 
socially,  economically,  religiously,  and  politi- 
cally. They  were  looked  upon  as  the  natural 
leaders,  and  they  were  elected  to  the  important 
offices  in  the  colony.  All  the  round  of  arts 
and  industries  went  on  in  connection  with  the 
plantation.  The  plantations  were  the  local 
centres  of  population,  and  the  planter  was  the 
overlord.  General  John  Mason  gives  an  in- 
teresting picture  of  plantation  life: 

My  father  had  among  his  slaves  carpenters,  tanners, 
curriers,  shoemakers,  spinners,  weavers,  knitters,  and  even 
a  distiller. 

22 


ANTECEDENTS  OF  THE  VIRGINIA  COLONISTS 

The  raw  materials  for  these  artisans  were 
found  on  the  plantation.  Colonel  Mason  had 
five  hundred  persons  on  his  estate,  and  is 
known  to  have  shipped  from  his  private 
wharf  23,000  bushels  of  wheat  in  a  single 
shipment.1 

Social  and  Political  Influence  of  the 
Planters.  —  After  the  first  decade  of  struggles 
connected  with  the  settlement  at  Jamestown, 
the  Virginia  colonists  began  to  develop  large 
agricultural  enterprises.  The  men  who  first 
developed  this  type  of  life  in  Virginia  were 
"  gentlemen."  A  few  were  of  the  titled 
nobility  from  England,  and  were  the  natural 
leaders  in  all  important  affairs  of  the  colony. 
They  brought  with  them  from  England  the 
social  and  political  customs  of  the  mother 
country.  They  held  the  offices  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  colony,  and  were  the  social  leaders 
and  church  officials.  They  were  the  educated 
and  cultured  class  in  the  colony.  They  had 
immediate  control  of  the  lower  class,  either  as 
hired  workmen  on  their  plantations  or  as  inden- 

1  "Old  Virginia  and  Her  Neighbors,"  Fiske,  Vol.  I,  p.  234. 
23 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

tured  servants.1  In  such  a  social  system  an 
aristocratic  form  of  society  will  always  prevail. 
This  was  the  type  of  social  system  that 
developed  in  Virginia  and  persisted  for  at 
least  two  centuries. 

Influence  of  the  Physical  Features.  —  Most 
of  the  large  plantations  lay  along  the  deep 
rivers  of  the  tidewater  country,  where  the 
planters  had  private  wharfs.  These  rivers  and 
creeks  permeated  the  country  so  thoroughly 
that  there  was  no  need  of  the  building  of  roads, 
for  these  streams  were  the  highways  of  travel. 
Fiske  speaks  of  Virginia  as  a  "  sylvan  Venice." 

One  receives  the  impression  in  reading  of  colonial 
Virginia  that  all  the  world  lived  in  country  houses  on 
the  borders  of  rivers.2 

Hugh  Jones  wrote  (1724)  : 

No  country  is  better  watered,  for  the  convenience 
of  which  most  houses  are  built  near  some  landing  place 
so  that  anything  may  be  delivered  to  a  gentleman  there 
from  London,  Bristol,  etc.,  with  less  trouble  and  cost 
than  to  one  living  five  miles  in  the  country  in  England ; 

1  The  term  of  indenture  was  from  four  to  seven  years,  but  this  term 
might  be  prolonged  indefinitely  by  reason  of  offences  committed.  "  Old 
Virginia  and  Her  Neighbors,"  Fiske,  Vol.  II,  p.  177. 

2  See  Miss  Rowland's  "Life  of  George  Mason,"  Vol.  I,  p.  90. 

24 


ANTECEDENTS  OF  THE  VIRGINIA  COLONISTS 

for  you  pay  no  freight  from  London  and  but  little  from 
Bristol ;  only  the  party  to  whom  the  goods  belong  is  in 
gratitude  engaged  to  ship  tobacco  upon  the  ship  to  her 
owners  in  England. 

There  were  no  towns  in  the  colony  of  any  great 
size.  Jamestown  was  a  mere  village ;  Hampton, 
Norfolk,  Williamsburg,  and  Richmond  were  very 
small  towns  in  1700.  This  state  of  affairs  made 
necessary  the  system  of  plantation  manufacture. 

Summary.  —  The  first  leading  settlers  of  Vir- 
ginia were  largely  gentlemen.  They  brought 
with  them  to  the  wilderness  in  Virginia  the 
traditions,  customs,  and  ideals  of  Englishmen 
in  the  mother  country.  They  engaged  in  the 
cultivation  of  corn  and  tobacco.  The  latter 
soon  became  the  most  valuable  commercial 
product,  the  raising  of  which  required  a 
great  army  of  unskilled  laborers.  The  large 
profits  realized  from  the  tobacco  industry, 
both  to  the  Virginia  planter  and  the  English 
merchant,  stimulated  the  interest  in  the  im- 
portation of  slaves  and  other  kinds  of  inden- 
tured servants  and  redemptioners.  Even  the 
skilled  workmen  and  merchants  who  came   to 

25 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

carry  on  trades  and  mercantile  business  were 
encouraged  to  give  up  their  lines  of  work 
and  engage  in  raising  tobacco.  Thus  there 
developed  the  plantation  system  by  which 
large  acreages  were  owned  and  operated  by  a 
single  planter,  who,  in  this  way,  grew  economi- 
cally, socially,  and  politically  powerful,  and  not 
only  managed  his  large  estate  with  hundreds 
of  workmen,  but  held  in  his  control  the  affairs 
of  the  colonial  govermnent.  These  are  some 
of  the  factors  that  made  possible,  if  not  impera- 
tive, for  the  time,  at  least,  the  highly  aristo- 
cratic form  of  society  in  Virginia.  Roughly 
speaking,  there  were  two  classes  of  people 
making  up  the  population  in  Virginia:  (1) 
the  rich  planters  who  were  comparatively  few 
in  number,  and  (2)  the  various  classes  of 
laborers  or  servants.  There  was  no  strong 
middle  class  for  nearly  two  centuries.  The 
planters,  or  upper  class,  naturally  were  in- 
terested only  in  an  educational  system  that 
affected  their  own  children,  and  hence  intro- 
duced the  tutorial  system,  to  which  they  were 
accustomed  in  England^ 

26 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  RISE  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  IN  VIRGINIA 

English  Schools  Transplanted  to  Virginia.  — 
The  development  of  elementary  schools  in 
Virginia  began  with  the  transplanting  of  English 
institutions  to  America.  During  the  first  half 
of  the  seventeenth  century  Virginia  settlers N 
set  up  the  same  institutions,  social,  political, 
ecclesiastical,  and  educational,  to  which  they 
were  accustomed  in  the  mother  country.  This 
transplanting  process  was  more  truly  carried 
out  in  Virginia  than  in  the  other  colonies  in 
America:  (1)  because  of  the  distinctive  English 
type  of  the  settlers ;  (2)  because  of  the  definitely 
commercial  purpose  of  the  colony;  and  (3)  be- 
cause of  the  religious,  political,  and  social  ideals 
of  the  people  who  came  to  settle  in  Virginia. 

Until  about  1619  there  were  no  children  in  \ 
Virginia ;  therefore,  there  was  no  reason  for  the 
Virginia  settlers  to  be  concerned  about  educa- 
tion.     In  this  respect  this  colony  differed  from 

27 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

the  New  England  settlements,  where  whole 
families  came  over  to  make  their  permanent 
homes  in  the  new  world. 

Orphans  Sent  to  Virginia.  —  The  early  educa- 
tional interest  among  the  people  of  Virginia  con- 
cerned itself  with  orphan  children  that  were  sent 
over  from  the  hospitals  and  asylums  in  England. 
The  famous  Poor  Laws  and  Apprenticeship 
Laws  of  England  attempted  to  care  for  these 
children.  The  English  colonies  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  world  furnished  a  refuge  for  a 
great  number  of  these  children  from  England. 
Virginia  received  her  quota  of  these  orphans. 
In  1619  provision  was  made  for  one  hundred 
children  to  be  sent  to  the  Virginia  colony. 
They  came  from  London,  and  five  hundred 
pounds  was  sent  for  their  apprenticeship  among 
the  colonists,  the  only  stipulation  being  that 
they  should  be  taught  "  some  good  trade  " 
by  their  masters.  It  must  have  been  a  very 
satisfactory  arrangement,  for  in  1620  the  colony 
requested  more  children. 

V  Apprenticeship  Law  of    1643.  —  In    1643  we 
have  the  first  general  legislation  regarding  the 

28 


THE  RISE  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

care  of  these  orphans.  The  law  provides  that 
these  children  be  brought  up  in  the  "  Christian 
religion  "  and  in  the  "  rudiments  of  learning 
according  to  their  estates."     The  law  says : 

The  guardians  and  overseers  of  all  orphants  shall  care- 
fully keep  and  preserve  such  estates  as  shall  be  com- 
mitted to  their  trusts  either  by  order  of  court  or  other- 
wise. And  shall  likewise  render  an  exact  accompt  once 
everie  year  to  the  commissioners  of  the  several  county 
courts,  respectively,  of  the  said  estates  and  of  the  in- 
crease and  improvement,  who  are  hereby  to  keep  an  exact 
register  thereof.  And  all  overseers  and  guardians  of  such 
orphants  are  enjoyned  by  authority  aforesaid  to  educate 
and  instruct  them  according  to  their  best  endeavors  in 
Christian  religion  and  in  the  rudiments  of  learning  and  to 
provide  for  their  necessaries  according  to  the  competents 
of  their  estate.1 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  legislative  provi- 
sion called  for  a  type  of  industrial  training  in 
some  of  the  trades  and  for  the  "  rudiments  of 
learning,"  which  most  likely  meant  reading 
and  writing.  It  will  be  noted  also  that  the 
authority  for  this  training  was  vested  in  the 
civil  power  (County  Courts),  but  it  is  most 
likely  that   the  church  provided   the   teaching 

^ening,  Vol.  I,  p.  260. 
29 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

force  so  far  as  the  "  rudiments  of  learning  " 
were  concerned,  and,  in  addition,  exercised  a 
supervisory  power  over  this  education. 
VApprenticeship  Law  of  1646.  —  This  act  of 
1646  is  more  specific.  It  provides  that  the  chil- 
dren shall  be  brought  up  in  good  breeding  (learn- 
ing) and  in  good  and  lawful  trades.  This  act 
contains  the  interesting  description  of  the  school 
building  required  and  is  the  first  account  of 
this  sort  of  workhouse  school  in  America.  It 
was  to  be  a  school  for  teaching  trades.  Because 
of  its  unique  provisions  the  act  is  quoted  in 
full. 

Commissioners  of  the  several  counties  shall  make 
.choice  of  two  children,  male  or  female,  eight  or  seven 
v  years  at  least,  to  be  sent  to  James  City  (Jamestown)  to 
be  employed  in  the  public  flax  factory  work  under  such 
master  and  masters  as  shall  thus  be  appointed,  in  card- 
ing, knitting,  spinning,  and  so  on,  and  that  said  children 
shall  be  furnished  from  the  counties  with  six  barrels  of 
corn,  two  coverlids,  one  rugg,  one  blanket,  one  bed,  one 
wooden  bowl  or  tray,  two  pewter  spoons,  a  sow  shote  of 
six  months,  and  two  laying  hens,  convenient  apparel,  both 
linen  and  woolen,  with  hose  and  shoes.  That  there  be 
two  houses  built  by  the  first  of  April  next,  forty  feet  long 
apeace  with  good  substantial  timber.  The  houses  to  be 
twenty  feet  broad  apeace,  eight  foot  high  in  the  pitche, 

30 


THE  RISE  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

and  a  stack  of  brick  chimney  standing  in  the  midst  of 
each  house,  and  that  they  be  lofted  with  sawne  boards 
and  made  with  convenient  partitions,  commissioners  have 
caution  not  to  take  up  children  from  such  parents  who 
by  reason  of  their  poverty  are  disable  to  maintain  and 
educate  them.  That  the  governor  hath  agreed  with  the 
Assembly  for  the  sum  of  ten  thousand  pounds  of  to-bo 
to  be  paid  him  the  next  crop  to  build  said  houses.1 

It  is  not  certain  that  this  plan  for  an  indus- 
trial school  at  Jamestown  was  ever  put  into 
actual  operation,  but  there  is  definite  evidence 
that  there  were  attempts  to  establish  such 
schools  in  some  of  the  counties  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  We  have 
direct  evidence  that  this  plan  .  for  industrial 
training  was  carried  out  in  some  of  the  schools 
of  secondary  grade  at  this  time.  The  presence 
of  these  general  laws  indicates  at  least  that 
there  was  a  well-defined  sentiment  for  education 
among  the  colonists.  The  documentary  evi- 
dence for  the  execution  of  these  laws  is  to  be 
found  only  in  the  proceedings  of  the  "  Orphans' 
Courts  "  in  the  various  counties  in  Virginia, 
and  in  the  parish  proceedings  of  the  church 

^Hening,  Vol.  I,  pp.  336-37. 
31 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

wardens.  There  is  a  general  statute  which 
provides  that  the  "  County  Courts  "  shall  give 
at  least  one  sitting  every  year  for  the  exclusive 
purpose  of  adjusting  matters  relating  to  orphans 
in  their  respective  counties.  These  county 
records  must  have  contained  orders  concerning 
these  individual  cases,  and  in  nearly  all  of  the 
executions  the  master  was  to  see  to  it  that  these 
children  were  taught  a  trade  and  to  "  read, 
write,  and  cipher."  Many  times  the  order 
contained  the  stipulation  that  they  were  to  be 
trained  in  the  Christian  religion.  There  are 
provisions  in  the  laws  that  if  an  orphan's  estate 
is  not  sufficient  to  give  him  a  "  free  "  (liberal) 
education,  he  shall  be  apprenticed  to  work; 
also  that  the  courts  shall  see  to  it  that  the  or- 
phans are  taught  trades  and  the  "  rudiments  of 
learning." 

Apprenticeship  Law  of  1672.  —  The  act  of 
1672  contains  substantially  the  same  provision 
that  we  find  in  the  Apprenticeship  and  Poor 
Laws  of  England.     It  says : 

That  the  justices  of  the  peace  in  every  county  doe  put 
the  laws  of  England  against  vagrants,  idlers,  and  disso- 


THE  RISE  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

lute  persons,  in  strict  execution,  and  the  respective 
county  courts  shall  and  are  hereby  empowered  and 
authorized  to  place  out  all  the  children  whose  parents  are 
not  able  to  bring  them  up  apprentices  to  tradesmen, 
the  males  till  one  and  twenty  years  of  age  and  the  fe- 
males to  other  necessary  employment  till  eighteen  years 
of  age  and  no  longer,  and  the  church  wardens  of  every 
parish  shall  [be]  strictly  enjoyned  by  the  courts  to  give 
them  an  account  at  their  Orphans  Courts  of  all  such 
children  within  their  parish.1 

Other  general  laws  (1705)  provide  that  masters 
shall  be  compelled  to  teach  orphans  to  "  read 
and  write."  This  is  the  first  legislative  pro- 
vision requiring  reading  and  writing  to  be 
taught.2 

The  law  of  1748  provides  that  "  any  persons 
adjudged  by  the  County  Court  incapable  of 
supporting  and  bringing  up  their  children  in 
honest  courses  or  to  take  due  care  of  the  educa- 
tion of  their  children  and  their  instruction  in 
the  principles  of  Christianity  in  any  such  cases 
it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  wardens  of  the  church 
parish  where  such  children  inhabit  by  order  of 
their  court  to  bind  each  child  apprentice  in  the 

1  Hening,  Vol.  II,  p.  298. 

2  Ibid.,  4th  Anne,  Chap.  33,  Section  14. 

d  33 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

same  manner  as  the  law  directs  for  poor  orphan 
children."  * 

This  last  act  provides  for  the  compulsory 
apprenticing  of  many  of  the  children*  and  in  its 
intent  is  a  sort  of  compulsory  education  law, 
thereby  insuring  elementary  training  for  all 
the  poor  children,  first,  in  some  good  trade, 
and  next,  in  reading,  writing,  and  in  the  cate- 
chism. However,  there  is  no  available  evidence 
that  these  laws  were  rigidly  enforced. 

Summary  of  these  Apprenticeship  Laws. — We 
have  thus  far  seen  how  the  makers  of  the  general 
laws  of  Virginia  in  the  early  history  of  the  colony 
looked  upon  the  necessity  of  elementary  educa- 
tion of  those  children  (1)  who  were  sent  from 
England  to  live  in  the  colony  of  Virginia  and 
ultimately  to  become  a  part  of  its  social  fabric ; 
(2)  those  children  whose  parents  were  incapable 
of  supporting  and  caring  for  the  education  of 
their  children;  and  (3)  all  children  and  idle 
persons  who  seemed  to  have  no  guardian  care. 
While  these  general  apprenticeship  laws  were 
not  really  educational  laws,  they  nevertheless 

1  Hening,  Vol.  VI,  p.  32. 
34 


THE  RISE  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

contained  the  necessary  provision  for  the  educa- 
tion of  a  large  class  of  children  in  Virginia.  It 
was  a  scheme  by  which  the  highest  authorities, 
civil  and  religious,  in  the  colony  attempted  to 
provide  training  for  the  children  along  industrial, 
religious,  and  educational  lines.  Of  course,  this 
scheme  provided  only  for  the  poor,  children. 

Early  Types  of  Virginia  Schools.  —  There 
was  a  great  number  of  children  in  the  colony 
who  did  not  fall  under  these  general  laws.  These 
were  the  children  of  parents  who  were  more 
fortunately  situated  from  an  economic  stand- 
point, and  were  therefore  able  to  look  after  the 
training  of  their  own  children.  For  the  facts 
concerning  the  education  of  these  children,  we 
shall  have  to  examine  a  different  source  of  evi- 
dence. It  should  be  stated  here  that  there 
were  throughout  the  colony  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century  many  different  types  of 
schools,1  and  the  masters  of  apprenticed  children 
often  took  advantage  of  fulfilling  their  obliga- 

1  In  Surrey  County  alone  there  were  fifty  instances  between  1679  and 
1684  where  bonds  were  given  by  guardians  stating  that  wards  should  be 
taught  in  schools. 

35 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN   VIRGINIA 

tions  to  the  courts  by  sending  their  wards  to 
these  schools.  Otherwise,  the  master  himself 
or  some  member  of  his  family  taught  the  chil- 
dren the  "  rudiments  of  learning  "  or  he  may 
have  been  put  to  the  necessity  of  employing  a 
teacher  for  these  orphan  children. 

During  the  seventeenth  and  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  there  developed  among  the 
Virginian  colonists  various  types  of  schools  pro- 
viding for  the  education  of  the  children  in  the 
elementary  school  branches:  (1)  The  grammar 
school,  which,  in  addition  to  the  higher  branches 
taught,  gave  instruction  in  the  elementary  sub- 
jects of  "  reading,  writing,  and  ciphering  " ; 
(2)  an  endowed  free  school,  whose  primary 
purpose  was  to  give  training  in  the  elementary 
forms  of  learning;  (3)  a  community  school, 
later  known  as  the  private  school,  where  the 
heads  of  various  families  living  in  the  same  neigh- 
borhood combined  in  the  employing  of  a  teacher 
for  their  children ;  (4)  the  tutorial  system,  a 
method  the  rich  planter  used  in  providing  in- 
struction for  his  children  and  sometimes,  in 
addition,  for  the  children  of  his  neighbor. 

36 


THE  RISE  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

Governor  Berkeley's  Famous  Words. — 
Governor  Berkeley's  famous  words  in  1671,  "  I 
thank  God  that  there  are  no  free  schools  in 
Virginia,"  are  not  to  be  taken  as  having  very 
much  foundation  in  fact.  In  another  part  of 
the  report  to  the  English  Commissioners  re- 
garding "  schools  in  Virginia  "  he  states  that  the 
schools  are  conducted  very  much  as  they  are  in 
England.  Those  who  are  able  educate  their 
children  by  tutors  in  their  homes,  and  the  poor, 
by  the  apprentice  system.1/  When  he  answered 
these  questions,  he  was  within  a  day's  ride  from 
the  Symms  and  Eaton  schools,  which  were  in  a 
flourishing  condition.  Eleven  years  before  he 
had  shown  extraordinary  activity  in  efforts 
to  secure  a  school  in  the  colony  which  was  to 
partake  of  the  joint  character  of  a  college  and 
free  school.  He  really  had  subscribed  an 
amount  of  money  to  this  enterprise.  It  is 
quite  certain  that  there  were  a  number  of  free 
schools  in  Virginia  at  the  time  the  famous 
governor  sent  this  report  to  England. 

Grammar   Schools.  —  The     term     grammar 

1  "Institutional  History  of  Virginia,"  Bruce,  Vol.  I,  p.  360. 
37 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

school  usually  means  an  institution  of  secondary 
or  college  grade  where  the  classical  languages 
and  perhaps  mathematics  are  taught.  But  in 
Virginia,  as  well  as  in  England,  they  often  com- 
bine the  primary  instruction  with  the  higher. 
The  teaching  force  of  these  schools  usually  con- 
sisted of  a  master  and  an  usher.  The  latter 
was  an  assistant  to  the  former,  and  was  usually 
assigned  the  instruction  in  the  primary  branches. 
The  best  known  examples  of  this  type  of  school 
in  Virginia  are  the  Symms  and  the  Eaton  schools 
in  Elizabeth  City  County.  These  were  known 
as  free  schools  and  were  endowed  by  philan- 
thropic individuals  of  wealth.  In  England  this 
type  of  school  was  often  known  as  a  "  charity 
school."  The  Eaton  School  in  Virginia  is 
often  referred  to  in  the  records  as  "Eaton's 
Charity  School."  Eaton  himself  had  been 
educated  in  one  of  these  Latin  Grammar 
Schools  of  England.  There  seems  to  be 
some  confusion  regarding  the  word  "  free " 
in  connection  with  schools  of  this  time,  both 
in  England  and  in  America.  A  "free" 
school  in  some  cases  means  a  school  where  a 


THE  RISE  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

"  liberal "    education    may    be    had.     This    is 
evidently  the  meaning  in  connection  with  some  { 
of  the  schools  in  America  in  the  seventeenth 
century.     The    other    meaning    of    the    word  ■ 
"  free  "  is  the  usual  or  ordinary  use  of  the  word. 
It  meant  a  school  at  which  there  were  no  fees  '< 
for  tuition,  and  in  some  instances  no  cost  for  , 
board  or  clothing.     It  was  an  endowed  "  freet 
school."     There    were    many    attempts    to    es-. 
tablish  such  schools  in  the  seventeenth  century.. 
Some  of  these  failed  because  of  various  unfore- 
seen    disasters,     which,     in     some     instances,' 
threatened  the  very  life  and  existence  of  the 
colony.1     The   facts,    however,    are    interesting 
in  the  educational  history  of  Virginia,  because 
they  indicate  at  least  the  serious  intent  of  the 
colonists    to    provide    educational    advantages 
for  their  children  as  good  as  the  early  colonists 
had    enjoyed    in    England    before    coming    to 
America. 

1  Indian  massacre  of  1622  and  the  dissolution  of  the  London  Company 
in  1624. 


39 


CHAPTER  IV 

EARLY    ATTEMPTS    TO    ESTABLISH    FREE  SCHOOLS 
IN    VIRGINIA 

In  the  mother  country  some  of  the  most 
useful  of  the  smaller  institutions  of  learning 
had  been  founded  by  philanthropic  individuals, 
and  from  generation  to  generation  had  enabled 
the  English  youth  to  acquire  at  least  a  primary 
education.  Among  the  early  immigrants  to 
Virginia,  there  were  some  who  were  animated 
by  the  same  fine  philanthropic  spirit  as  those 
persons  who  had  endowed  these  institutions 
of  learning  in  England.  "  Had  the  colony's 
different  communities  been  as  thickly  inhabited 
as  the  English,  which  would  have  assured  the 
success  of  a  free  school,  with  far  more  certainty 
than  the  sparsity  of  population,  there  is  reason 
to  think  that  the  number  of  endowed  grammar 
foundations  would  have  been  as  great  in  Vir- 
ginia as  in  England."  1 

>  1  "Institutional  History  of  Virginia,"  Bruce,  Vol.  I,  p.  133, 
40 


ATTEMPTS  TO  ESTABLISH  FREE  SCHOOLS 

The  First  Plan  for  a  Free  School  in  Vir- 
ginia. —  The  first  plan  for  a  free  school  in 
Virginia  was  designed  for  'the  education  of  the 
Indian  youth.  This  was  in  1619-20  while  the 
London  Company  still  had  control  of  the 
colony.  Some  one  who  did  not  reveal  his  name 
gave  the  munificent  sum  of  nearly  $14,000 
in  gold,  with  the  direction  that  the  money 
should  be  used  in  instructing  a  "  convenient 
number  of  Indian  youth  in  the  art  of  reading  " 
and  in  the  principles  of  the  Christian  religion. 
The  donor  further  stipulates  that  this  instruc- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  Indian  children 
from  the  ages  of  seven  to  twelve,  and  after  that, 
to  the  age  of  twenty -one,  they  were  to  be 
carefully  trained  in  some  useful  handicraft. 
Provision  was  also  made  for  some  of  the  money 
to  be  used  by  two  "  trust-worthy  persons " 
who  should  have  oversight  of  this  work  and 
report  to  the  treasurer  of  the  London  Company 
quarterly  an  account  of  the  execution  of  the 
purposes  of  the  fund,  together  with  a  list  of 
the  names  of  the  pupils  receiving  instruction. 
After  several   attempts   to   use  the  money  in 

41 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

the  way  indicated  in  Southampton  Hundred 
and  Martin's  Hundred,  the  company  finally 
invested  the  entire  sum  in  the  erection  of  iron 
works  from  whose  profits  thirty  Indian  children 
were  to  be  educated.  vThe  great  Indian 
massacre  of  1622  seems  to  have  brought  to  an 
untimely  end  both  the  laudable  scheme  of 
education  for  the  Indian  youth  and  the  iron 
works.1 

The  Second  Attempt  to  Establish  a  Free 
School.  —  The  second  attempt  to  establish  a 
free  school  was  intended  for  the  white  children 
of  the  colony.  This  was  to  be  known  as  the 
"  East  India  School."  The  plan  had  its  origin 
in  a  collection  taken  among  the  passengers  of 
the  Royal  James,  a  ship  returning  from  the 
Indies.  The  ship's  chaplain,  Rev.  Mr.  Cope- 
land,  at  whose  suggestion  the  money  was  con- 
tributed, was  made  rector  of  the  school.  In 
1622  steps  were  taken  to  build  a  house,  and  a 
Mr.  Dike  of  England  was  appointed  master, 
with  the  understanding  that  he  was  to  secure 

1  Abstracts  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Virginia  Company  of  London, 
Vol.  I,  p.  163. 

42 


ATTEMPTS  TO  ESTABLISH  FREE  SCHOOLS 

an  assistant  who  was  a  good  writer  to  give 
"  instruction  in  arithmetic."  The  school  was 
to  be  located  at  Charles  City.  Teachers  were 
to  be  engaged  for  five  years.  The  London 
Company  was  to  supply  them  with  the  neces- 
sary books,  and  in  addition  to  the  salary  of 
Mr.  Dike,  he  was  to  receive  a  patent  of  one 
hundred  acres  of  land,  and  at  the  end  of  his 
term,  an  additional  five  hundred  acres.  These 
instructors  were  to  obtain  a  certificate  to  teach 
from  the  governor  of  the  colony.  This  scheme 
of  education  seems  to  have  shared  the  same 
fate  of  other  like  enterprises,  and  was  brought 
to  a  premature  end  by  the  great  catastrophe 
of  1622.  Whatever  became  of  these  founda- 
tions after  the  revival  of  the  colony  from  the 
Indian  massacre  is  yet  to  be  found  out ;  for 
we  hear  nothing  more  of  these  early  efforts  to 
provide  primary  education  for  the  children  of 
Virginia. 

We  shall  now  turn  our  attention  to  some 
more  substantial  efforts  on  the  part  of  the 
colonists  to  provide  educational  facilities  in 
Virginia. 

43 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

^  The  Symms  Free  School.  —  Bearing  date  of 
1634,  the  will  of  Benjamin  Symms  bequeaths 
the  foundation  for  a  free  school  in  Virginia. 
This  was  the  earliest  provision  for  effective 
free  education  in  America  and  precedes  by  at 
least  two  years  the  famous  gift  of  John  Harvard 
to  the  college  in  Massachusetts.  Symms  gave 
for  the  establishment  of  the  free  school  two 
hundred  acres  of  land,  the  proceeds  from  the 
sale  of  milk,  and  the  increase  of  eight  cows. 
This  school  was  to  be  located  in  Elizabeth 
City  County  and  to  afford  free  education  for 
the  children  living  within  the  bounds  of  that 
county.  This  school  was  soon  put  into  actual 
operation,  for  in  March,  1643,  the  General 
Assembly  takes  occasion  to  pass  a  special  act  in 
which  it  recognizes  the  "godly  disposition  and 
good  intent  "  of  the  benefactor  and  expresses 
a  determination  to  carry  out  his  wishes  to  the 
letter.  In  1647  the  school  seemed  to  be  work- 
ing on  a  firm  foundation  with  a  complete  house 
for  the  purpose.  In  1694  Robert  Crooke 
makes  known  his  desire  to  resign  as  master  of 
the  school  at  the  next  "  fall  of  the  leaf,"  and 

44 


ATTEMPTS  TO  ESTABLISH  FREE  SCHOOLS 

Samuel  Snignell  petitioned  the  County  Court 
to  appoint  him  master.  In  1647  the  herd  of 
cows  had  increased  five  times,  and,  with  careful 
husbanding  of  this  increase,  would  have,  in 
time,  provided  ample  foundation  for  running 
the  school  through  the  succeeding  generations. 
So  far  as  can  be  learned,  this  school  was  in  con- 
tinuous session  through  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries. 

)  The  Eaton  Free  School.  —  There  soon  fol- 
lowed another  example  of  the  Symms  gift. 
Dr.  Thomas  Eaton  gave  for  the  establishment 
of  a  free  school  five  hundred  acres  of  land 
stocked  with  "  two  negroes,  twelve  cows,  two 
bulls,  and  twenty  hogs."  The  estate  must 
have  been  under  a  high  degree  of  cultivation, 
and  therefore  of  considerable  value,  for  the 
bequest  included  a  lot  of  household  furniture. 
This  school  was  located  somewhere  in  Elizabeth 
City  County  and  was  designed  to  give  training 
to  the  children  residing  within  its  bounds.  The 
school  was  to  be  under  the  management  of  a 
Board  of  Trustees,  composed  of  the  clergymen, 
the    church    wardens    of    the    parish,  and    the 

45 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

justices  of  the  County  Court.  This  body 
appointed  a  master  who  served  as  the  active 
manager  of  the  bequest.  In  1691  Ebenezer 
Taylor  was  serving  in  this  capacity,  and  seems 
to  have  been  responsible  for  the  care  of  all  the 
stock ;  for  a  court  order  of  that  time  requires 
that  he  provide  clothing  for  an  old  slave  be- 
longing to  the  estate.  In  1697  George  Eland 
was  master  of  the  school. 

The  Symms  and  the  Eaton  Free  schools 
were  permanent  institutions  and  served  as 
models  for  other  sections  of  the  colony.1  It  is 
quite  certain  that  there  were  a  good  many 
schools  of  this  type  throughout  Virginia  at 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  As 
early  as  1652  Hugh  Lee  gave  orders  for  the 
establishment  of  a  free  school  in  Northumber- 
land County.  John  Moon,  in  1655,  Isle  of 
Wight  County,  made»  provision  in  his  will  for 
the  education  of  orphan  children  in  a  free 
school    already   founded.     Richard   Russell,   in 

1  These  schools  were  united  in  1805#as  Hampton  Academy.  In  1852 
the  fund  amounted  to  $10,000,  and  it  is  preserved  as  a  separate  fund  from 
the  public  school  fund.  A  portion  ef  this  was  used  in  1902  in  the  erection 
of  the  Symms-Eaton  school  building  in  Hampton. 

46 


ATTEMPTS  TO  ESTABLISH  FREE  SCHOOLS 

1666,  lower  Norfolk,  provided  means  for  the 
education  of  poor  children  at  a  school  then 
in  operation.  Mr.  King,  1668,  bequeathed  one 
hundred  acres  of  land  for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing a  free  school.  Henry  Peasley,  1675, 
provided  for  the  endowment  of  a  free  school  in 
Gloucester  County,  giving  six  hundred  acres, 
ten  cows,  and  one  breeding  mare.  Francis 
Pritchard,  the  same  year,  Lancaster  County, 
left  a  large  estate  for  the  establishment  of  a 
free  school.  William  Gordon,  1685,  Middlesex 
County,  gave  one  hundred  acres  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  free  school. 

There  are  large  tracts  of  land,  houses,  and  other  things 
granted  to  free  schools  for  the  education  of  children  in 
many  parts  of  the  country,  and  some  of  these  are  so 
large  that  of  themselves  they  are  a  handsome  main- 
tenance to  a  master ;  but  the  additional  allowance  which 
gentlemen  give  with  their  sons  render  them  a  comfortable 
subsistence.  These  schools  have  been  founded  by  the 
legacies  of  well-inclined  gentlemen,  and  the  management 
of  them  hath  commonly  been  left  to  the  direction  of  the 
county  court,  or  the  vestry  of  their  respective  parishes.1 

We  should  like  to  take  a  look  into  one  of 
these  schools  to  find  out  what  they  taught  and 

1  Beverley's  "History  of  Virginia,"  p.  224. 
47 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

how  they  taught,  but  there  is  little  available 
evidence  as  to  these  facts.1  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  the  master  was  required  to  teach 
English  grammar  in  the  Eaton  School,  which 
no  doubt  carried  with  it  instruction  in  Latin 
as  a  part  of  the  course.  It  is  very  certain 
also  that  the  primary  subjects,  such  as  reading 
and  writing,  were  among  the  subjects  taught. 
It  ought  to  be  observed  here  that  the  con- 
trolling authority  of  these  free  schools  was 
vested  in  a  combined  ecclesiastical  and  politi- 
cal body.  This  was  the  type  of  control  that 
characterized  the  Virginia  schools  in  the  seven- 
teenth and  far  into  the  eighteenth  century.  In 
1619  we  learn  that  the  County  Courts  in  Vir- 
ginia were  required  to  return  to  the  council 
office  at  Jamestown  a  list  of  all  the  schools 
situated  in  its  own  jurisdiction  and  also  a 
statement  as  to  whether  the  persons  filling  the 
position  of  teacher  had  obtained  licenses  or  not. 
Community  Schools.  —  Another  type  of 
school  developed  in  Virginia  was  the  com- 
munity   school,   more   commonly   known   at   a 

1  Many  of  the  county  records  during  the  vicissitudes  of  war  were  burned. 

48 


ATTEMPTS  TO  ESTABLISH  FREE  SCHOOLS 

later  time  as  the  "  Old  Field  School."  "  Per- 
haps the  greatest  proportion  of  the  children 
who  during  the  seventeenth  century  received 
an  education  obtained  it  in  what  became 
known  as  the  Old  Field  School."  *  These  com- 
munity schools  were  the  outcome  of  a  spirit 
of  cooperation  among  neighbors  for  the  pur- 
pose of  education.  Such  a  school  was  estab- 
lished in  some  spot  convenient  to  every  boy 
and  girl  in  the  whole  neighborhood.  The 
building  was  constructed  by  the  members  of 
the  community  in  some  abandoned  field  or 
lone  spot.  During  the  hours  school  was  not 
in  session  it  remained  locked  and  vacant.  The 
leading  members  of  the  community  employed 
a  teacher  at  a  stipulated  sum  or  fee  for  each 
pupil.  The  sessions  were  usually  held  in  the 
summer  months  from  April  to  September.  The  » 
authority  for  the  establishment  and  control 
of  such  a  school  was  wholly  in  the  hands  of 
the  local  community,  and  the  church  or  state 
had  no  other  connection  than  that  of  granting 
certificates  to  teachers. 

^r-1  "Institutional  History  of  Virginia,"  Bruce,  Vol.  I,  p.  331. 
e  49 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that 
many  times  the  teacher  was  the  regular  clergy- 
man of  the  parish  or  community,  and  in  this 
instance  the  school  was  usually  held  at  the 
parish  house.  This  seems  to  have  been  the 
custom  of  the  clergymen  as  a  means  of  adding 
to  their  income  over  and  above  that  of  their 
regular  salary.  "  There  could  hardly  in  those 
times  have  been  found  outside  of  the  great 
seats  of  learning  a  class  more  competent  ta 
teach  than  these  early  Virginia  clergymen."  ! 
These  men  had  been  educated  in  the  best 
English  schools,  and  it  is  quite  natural  that 
the  colonists  should  look  to  them  as  the  most 
capable  for  bringing  up  their  children  in  learn- 
ing. The  church  "  readers,"  in  the  absence 
of  the  regular  clergyman,  often  performed  the 
duties  of  teacher  in  these  schools.  The  sparsely 
settled  sections  of  some  parts  of  the  state 
combined  the  office  of  "  reader  "  and  "  teacher." 
This  plan  seems  to  have  appealed  to  the  House 
of  Burgesses,  for  in  a  recommendation  to  the 
governor  they  requested  that  he    license    cer- 

1  See  "Present  State  of  Virginia,"  Hugh  Jones,  p.  68. 
50 


ATTEMPTS  TO  ESTABLISH  FREE  SCHOOLS 

tain  "  readers  "  to  teach  in  the  more  remote 
sections.1 

We  have  noticed  before  that  the  teachers  of 
these  schools  were  required  to  hold  licenses 
either  from  the  Bishop  of  London,  in  whose 
diocese  Virginia  was  included,  or  from  the 
governor  of  the  colony.  There  seems  to  have  I 
been  a  very  strict  adherence  to  the  rule  of  re-  I 
quiring  teachers  in  Virginia  to  obtain  licenses  \ 
from  one  of  these  authorities.  Sometimes  the 
magistrates  or  the  wardens  of  the  parish  would 
recommend  to  the  governor  persons  suitable 
to  teach ;  so  it  must  have  been  the  first  step  of 
a  teacher  toward  opening  a  school  to  petition 
the  County  Court  to  obtain  for  him  the  neces- 
sary license  from  the  governor.  In  this  way, 
the  justices  practically  decided  who  should  be 
allowed  to  teach  in  the  schools.  Indeed,  the 
granting  of  licenses  was  purely  a  formal  act 
on  the  part  of  the  governor,  and  the  fee  was 
only  a  few  pounds  of  tobacco,  except  in  a  few 
cases  where  the  governor  took  this  as  an 
opportunity  to  swell  his  revenue  by  exacting 

1  "Institutional  History  of  Virginia,"  Bruce,  Vol.  I,  pp.  332-35. 
51 


HISTORY  OF    EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

a  larger  fee.1  Some  of  the  County  Courts 
offered  inducements  to  draw  school-teachers 
within  their  counties  by  exempting  them  from 
paying  of  taxes  for  a  period  of  time.2 

In  the  records  of  the  settlements  of  estates 
there  are  many  entries  of  sums  due  school- 
masters which  give  interesting  information  as 
to  the  source  of  the  salary  of  such  officials. 
The  fee  is  very  often  spoken  of  in  terms  of 
tobacco,  but  the  usual  annual  fee  amounted 
in  our  currency  to  about  twenty-five  dollars 
a  pupil.  In  1691  the  General  Assembly  refused 
to  adopt  a  proposition  that  the  schoolmaster's 
salary  be  determined  by  law.3 

Again  we  have  no  definite  documentary  evi- 
dence as  to  what  was  taught  in  these  schools. 
It  is  safe  to  say,  however,  from  more  or  less  in- 
direct sources,  that  the  usual  primary  subjects, 
such  as  reading,  writing,  and  the  "casting  of 
accounts,"  which  was  another  name  for  arith- 
metic, made  up  the  curriculum  for  these  schools. 

1  Governor  Howard  was  accused  of  this  practice  (1682-95). 

2  Henrico  Justices  exempted  Mr.  Nathaniel  Hall  in  1686.  This  was 
by  no  means  an  uncommon  practice  in  the  Virginia  counties. 

3  Colonial  Entry  Book,  Vol.  1682-95,  Minutes  of  Assembly,  1693. 

52 


ATTEMPTS  TO  ESTABLISH  FREE  SCHOOLS 

There  are  a  number  of  records,  particularly 
among  deeds  of  transfer,  that  indicate  that 
these  Virginia  schoolmasters  accumulated 
enough  money  to  purchase  considerable  es- 
tates. This  may  not  mean  very  much  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  land  was  very  cheap  at  that 
time.1 

Private  Tutors.  —  One  of  the  most  effective 
forms  of  instruction  in  England  was  the  tutorial 
system.  The  families  of  the  upper  classes  in 
the  mother  country  always  employed  a  tutor 
for  their  children.  Some  of  the  most  noted 
educators  of  England  served  in  this  capacity. 
The  well-to-do  planters  in  Virginia  selected 
this  plan  for  the  education  of  their  children. 
The  plantation  system  and  the  absence  of 
towns  in  Virginia  made  this  method  of  instruc- 
tion the  most  satisfactory.  The  effort  to 
build  cities  in  the  colony  of  Virginia  in  1680 
had  as  one  of  its  good  results  the  encourage- 
ment of  better  educational  facilities  in  the 
colony.  The  plantation  was  a  complete  com- 
munity   in   itself,    having   grouped    together   a 

1  "Institutional  History  of  Virginia,"  Bruce,  Vol.  I,  p.  342. 

53 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

great  number  of  people.  There  were  carpenters, 
blacksmiths,  laborers  for  the  tobacco  fields, 
and,  in  fact,  artisans  of  all  the  handicrafts. 
The  teacher  was  one  of  these  necessary  indi- 
viduals in  such  a  concentrated  community. 

The  rich  planter  employed  a  tutor  from 
among  the  young  men  who  were  candidates 
for  Orders,1  and  from  many  arrivals  from 
England  or  Scotland.  Often  these  teachers 
were  from  among  the  class  known  as  "  inden- 
tured servants,"  and  included  many  cultured 
Scotchmen  who  took  this  opportunity  of  get- 
ting away  from  unwholesome  social  and  political 
conditions  in  England.2     These  private  tutors 

1  Out  of  forty  ministers  answering  the  Bishop  of  London's  inquiry 
(1723)  as  to  schools  in  Virginia  nearly  all  answered  "None."  A  few 
referred  to  "charity  schools."  Private  tutors  at  rich  gentlemen's  houses 
gave  all  the  means  of  education  and  the  poor  had  no  access  to  them. 
See  Bishop  Meade's  "Old  Churches  and  Families,"  Vol.  I,  p.  190. 

2  Hugh  Jones,  in  his  "Present  State  of  Virginia,"  p.  23,  says:  "The 
assured  good  Report  of  this  vast  tract  of  land  and  happy  Climate  en- 
couraged Several  Gentlemen  of  condition  and  good  Descent  to  transport 
themselves  and  Families  and  settle  in  this  new  Paradise ;  some,  for  the 
Sake  of  Wealth,  some  for  Religion,  and  others  because  they  could  not  well 
live  elsewhere ;  and  others  because  they  dared  not,  or  cared  not  to  stay 
at  Home.  One  particular  occasion  that  sent  several  families  of  good 
Birth  and  Fortune  to  settle  there  was  the  Civil  Wars  in  England.  This 
safe  Receptacle  enticed  over  several  Cavalier  Families  where  they  made 

54 


ATTEMPTS  TO  ESTABLISH  FREE  SCHOOLS 

very  often  carried  their  pupils  into  the  rudi- 
ments of  higher  learning  which  served  as 
preparation  for  admission  into  the  grammar 
schools  either  in  Virginia  or  in  the  mother 
country.  Many  of  the  rich  planters,  from  the 
earliest  days  of  the  colony,  sent  their  children 
to  England  after  a  period  of  tutorage  at  home.1 
This  must  have  been  the  custom  long  before 
William  and  Mary  College  was  founded.2 
These  tutors  taught  the  girls  of  the  family  as 

many  laws  against  Puritans  though  they  were  free  from  them  which  had 
this  good  Success  that  to  this  day  (1724)  the  people  are  as  it  were  quite 
free  from  them  being  all  of  the  Church  of  England,  without  the  odious 
distinguishing  characters  of  High  and  Low  among  themselves." 

1  The  Fitzhughs,  Robinsons,  Randolphs,  Yates,  Pages,  Hunters,  Lees, 
Fairfaxes,  and  Dawsons  are  some  names  of  Virginia  families  who  had  sons 
matriculated  at  Oxford  and  other  schools  about  the  close  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  See  William  and 
Mary  Quarterly,  Vol.  II,  p.  172. 

2  "That  the  planters  had  been  hitherto  constrained  to  this  great  cost 
to  send  their  children  from  thence  (Virginia)  hither  to  be  taught." 
Records  of  the  London  Company,  1621.  "History  of  Williamsburg," 
Lyon  G.  Tyler. 

This  custom  must  have  prevailed  through  a  long  period,  for  the  follow- 
ing advertisement  appeared  in  the  Virginia  Gazette,  November  2,  1769. 
"At  the  Academy  in  Leeds  which  is  pleasantly  situated  in  the  county  of 
York  in  England,  young  gentlemen  are  genteelly  boarded  and  diligently 
educated  in  English,  the  classics,  modern  languages,  penmanship, 
arithmetick,  merchants'  accounts,  Math.,  geography,  etc.  for  twenty 
guineas  per  annum,  if  under  twelve  years  of  age,  by  Mr.  Aaron  Crimshaw 
and  able  masters.    Drawing,  music  and  dancing  are  extra  charges." 

55 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

well  as  the  boys,  but  the  instruction  beyond 
the  rudiments  of  reading  and  writing  took  a 
little  different  course  with  the  girls.  However, 
there  are  a  number  of  instances  in  the  first 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  where  the  girls 
must  have  had  the  classical  training  to  a  very 
considerable  extent,  for  we  know  that  some  of 
the  noted  men  in  the  colony  received  their 
preparation  in  the  classics  for  entrance  to  Wil- 
liam and  Mary  College  from  their  mothers.1 
The  girls'  training  was  more  often  directed 
into  the  field  of  literature  with  lessons  in  elo- 
cution and  English  grammar.  After  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  we  find 
many  instances  of  the  planters  employing  ladies 
as  tutors.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  pres- 
ent custom  in  Virginia  of  employing  governesses 
in  families.  This  kind  of  school  is  probably 
the  nearest  approach  in  Virginia  to  the  Dame 
Schools  of  New  England. 

This  tutorial  system  of  instruction,  so  popu- 
lar in  England,   seems  to  have  been  held  in 

1  George  Wythe's  mother  prepared  him   for   William   and    Mary 
College. 

56 


ATTEMPTS  TO  ESTABLISH  FREE  SCHOOLS 

the  same  high  esteem  in  Virginia,  particularly 
among  the  planters. 

A  tutor  was  engaged  under  contract  to  be 
furnished  "  meat,  drink,  lodging,  and  wash- 
ing," and  sometimes  it  was  stipulated  that  he 
should  have  a  few  acres  free  of  rent  upon 
which  to  plant  tobacco  and  vegetables.  In 
addition  to  this  he  was  to  receive  a  stipulated 
fee  which  usually  amounted  to  about  twenty- 
five  dollars  a  year  for  furnishing  tuition  to  the 
children  of  the  family.  When  the  planter's 
family  was  large,  the  schoolhouse  was  always 
found  in  the  group  of  plantation  buildings. 
In  order  that  the  tutor  might  add  to  his 
usually  meagre  income,  he  was  permitted  to 
have  as  pupils  the  sons  and  daughters  from 
neighboring  families,  the  daughters  usually 
boarding  at  the  planter's  home  during  the 
time  the  school  was  in  session. 

The  school  day  was  divided  into  three 
periods:  (1)  from  six  to  eight,  after  which  a 
recess  was  given  for  breakfast;  (2)  from  nine 
to  twelve,  when  they  had  lunch ;  (3)  from  three 
to  six,  when  school  was  out  for  the  day.     It  is 

57 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

interesting  to  note  that  it  was  the  custom  in 
the  seventeenth  century  and  far  into  the 
eighteenth  for  the  schools  to  be  in  session  from 
April  to  September  instead  of  during  the  winter 
months  as  at  present. 

Summary.  —  From  the  statement  of  the  fore- 
going facts  regarding  the  early  elementary 
education  in  Virginia,  it  will  be  observed :  (1) 
that  the  general  laws  providing  for  the  training 
of  the  children  were  in  the  nature  of  apprentice- 
ship regulations  containing  provisions  for  the 
training  of  the  children  in  reading,  writing,  the 
catechism,  and  in  the  art  of  some  trade,  these 
laws  referring  exclusively  to  orphans  and  poor 
children  of  the  colony ;  (2)  that,  by  the  philan- 
thropic spirit  of  some  men  of  wealth  in  the 
colony,  free  schools  were  endowed  at  which 
poor  children  of  many  parishes  received  their 
elementary  training;  (3)  that  community 
schools  were  organized  and  set  up  by  a  co- 
operative spirit  among  the  families  of  the 
planters  and  merchants,  who,  agreeing  upon  a 
teacher,  paid  a  fee  for  the  tuition  of  their 
children;     (4)    that  the  leading    planters    and 

58 


ATTEMPTS  TO  ESTABLISH  FREE  SCHOOLS 

most  wealthy  men  of  the  colonies  depended 
almost  wholly  for  the  education  of  their  chil- 
dren, in  the  elementary  branches  at  least,  upon 
a  tutor  employed  by  the  family. 

The  first  two  types  of  these  schools  provided 
training  in  reading,  writing,  the  catechism,  and 
the  art  of  some  trade.  The  last  two  concerned 
themselves  with  the  instruction  of  the  rudi- 
ments of  learning,  as  reading,  writing,  and  the 
"  casting  of  accounts,"  and  in  some  instances 
instruction  in  the  beginnings  of  Latin,  Greek, 
and,  in  rare  instances,  French. 

The  support  and  control  of  these  schools 
were  vested  in  the  combined  authority  of 
church  and  state;  the  state  appointed  trustees 
for  the  direct  control  of  the  endowed  free 
schools  and  to  it  was  given  the  authority  to 
license  teachers.  The  church,  in  many  in- 
stances, furnished  the  teaching  force,  and 
often  in  conjunction  with  the  civil  authorities 
exercised  the  right  of  supervision  over  these 
schools. 

The  community  schools  were  independent  of 
public  or  church  support  and  were  ^maintained 

59 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

by  fees  determined  upon  by  teacher  and  parent. 
The  family  school,  conducted  by  tutors,  was 
still  more  independent  of  church  or  civil  con- 
trol.1 There  was  no  attempt  even  to  license 
the  tutors.  The  employing  of  a  tutor  was 
an  entirely  individual  matter  and  rested  wholly 
with  the  planter. 

There  was  but  little  system  or  order  in  the 
educational  activities  in  the  early  history  of 
Virginia,  particularly  in  regard  to  elementary 
instruction.  It  was  laissez  faire  in  its  nature. 
Educational  legislation  in  Virginia  concerns 
itself  mainly  with  (1)  the  organization  of  a 
college  or  university,  (2)  individual  schools 
of  secondary  grade,  and  (3)  apprenticeship 
education  for  the  poor. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  types  of  schools  in  Virginia  were 
similar  to  those  which  had  been  developed  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  consisting  of  private 
tutors   or   governesses   for   the   wealthy   class; 

1  These  schools  were  supported  by  tuition  fees  and  were  not  dependent 
upon  any  authority  other  than  the  good  sense  of  the  parent  and  pupils. 
"  History  of  Education  in  Modern  Times,"  Graves,  p.  85. 

60 


ATTEMPTS  TO  ESTABLISH  FREE  SCHOOLS 

the  community  or  Old  Field  schools  for  the 
middle  class ;  and  the  grammar  schools  for 
secondary  training,  which  continued  through- 
out this  century  and  on  into  the  nineteenth 
century.  There  was  no  attempt  to  work  out 
a  state  system  of  education  until  Jefferson's 
plan  of  1779. 


61 


CHAPTER  V 

HIGHER   EDUCATION    IN   VIRGINIA   DURING   THE 
SEVENTEENTH   AND    EIGHTEENTH    CENTURIES 

Early  Attempt  at  Founding  a  College.  —  The 
London  Company  during  the  entire  time  it  had 
control  in  Virginia  concerned  itself  at  various 
times  with  the  establishment  of  a  college. 
Not  many  years  after  the  first  settlement  in 
Virginia  the  colonists  attempted  to  establish  a 
college  designed  for  the  education  of  Indian 
youth  in  the  Christian  faith,  but  it  was  also  in- 
tended to  furnish  the  planters'  children  with  an 
opportunity  to  obtain  advanced  instruction. 
The  people  in  England,  ever  since  the  discovery 
of  America,  had  expressed  great  interest  in  the 
religious  welfare  of  the  Indians,  and  the  educa- 
tional institutions  planned  for  the  early  colo- 
nists always  took  into  consideration  the  educa- 
tion of  the  Indians. 

The  first  real  effort  to  establish  a  college  in 
Virginia  was  the  sending  of  a  letter  by  James  I 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

to  all  parts  of  his  kingdom,  asking  for  contribu- 
tions for  the  establishment  of  a  college  in  Vir- 
ginia. At  a  meeting  of  the  general  court  at 
Jamestown  in  1619  announcement  was  made 
by  the  officers  of  the  London  Company  that  the 
amount  of  $35,000  in  gifts  and  money  had  been 
contributed  for  this  purpose.  Something  over 
$4000  of  this  was  in  actual  money.  It  was 
thought  unwise  at  this  time  to  use  any  of  the 
money  in  erecting  buildings.  Large  acreages 
were  set  aside  for  the  support  of  the  college  at 
Henrico  on  the  James  River.  A  grant  of  10,000 
acres  lying  on  the  north  and  the  south  sides  of 
the  James  River  was  turned  over  by  the  London 
Company  as  part  of  the  endowment  of  the  col- 
lege. It  was  suggested  that  fifty  tenants  be 
brought  over  from  England  and  settled  upon 
these  lands  for  the  purpose  of  putting  them  in  a 
state  of  tillage.  One-half  of  the  income  from 
these  tenants  was  to  be  used  in  putting  the  col- 
lege on  its  feet  and  maintaining  instructors. 

The  fundamental  orders  of  the  company  in 
1619  required  that  a  commission  of  five  or  seven 
persons  be  appointed  annually  to  have  charge  of 

63 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

the  building  and  the  management  of  the  college. 
The  treasurer  of  the  London  Company  was 
ordered  to  keep  a  separate  account  of  these 
funds,  and  he  was  authorized  to  solicit  subscrip- 
tions among  the  colonists  for  this  purpose. 
Benevolent  persons  in  England  contributed 
money  and  gifts,  a  number  of  them  withholding 
their  names.  Some  gave  "  faire  plate  and  other 
rich  ornaments."  Some  gave  a  communion 
table  for  the  chapel ;  —  still  others,  books, 
among  which  were  some  rare  translations  of 
St.  Augustine  and  the  writings  of  Dr.  Perkins, 
a  distinguished  clergyman  of  strong  Calvinistic 
inclination. 

According  to  the  general  plan  the  income  for 
the  support  of  the  college  was:  (1)  the  pro- 
ceeds from  the  tenants;  (2)  amounts  received 
for  the  support  of  pupils  from  scholarships  and 
fellowships  offered  by  the  East  India  school; 
(3)  interest  accruing  from  the  general  college 
fund ;  (4)  tuition  fees  from  the  planters.  This 
was  an  endowment,  ample  and  sufficient  at  that 
time,  for  the  conduct  of  a  higher  institution  of 
learning. 

64 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

In  1620  George  Thorpe,  an  Englishman,  was 
appointed  to  take  charge  of  the  college.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  king's  Privy  Council  and 
had  a  reputation  for  "  being  learned  in  scholar- 
ship and  zealous  in  piety,"  and  for  his  general 
support  they  gave  three  hundred  acres  of  land, 
together  with  ten  tenants,  the  income  from  whose 
work  was  to  be  the  basis  of  his  salary  at  first. 
Some  time  before,  a  number  of  mechanics  had 
been  sent  out  to  erect  the  buildings.  A  contract 
was  let  for  the  bricks  to  be  used  in  the  main 
structure,  and  when  all  seemed  to  be  going  well 
and  giving  happy  promise  of  the  early  useful- 
ness of  the  college,  the  Indian  plot  of  1622 
brought  all  this  good  work  to  a  sudden  close. 
It  is  known  that  seventeen  persons,  at  least, 
on  the  college  land  lost  their  lives  in  that  catas- 
trophe. Thorpe  himself,  in  spite  of  his  extraor- 
dinary zeal  and  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the 
Indians,  and  particularly  in  their  conversion, 
was  not  saved  from  the  fatal  stroke  of  the 
tomahawk. 

This  Indian  episode  thoroughly  disorganized 
the  plans  for  further  work  on  the  college,  but 
f  65 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

the  company  refused  to  yield  to  a  feeling  of 
discouragement.  Thirteen  months  after  the 
massacre  took  place  there  were  still  attached 
to  the  college  lands  numerous  persons  who  had 
survived  the  Indian  assault.  The  company 
seems  to  have  given  strict  instructions  to  the  re- 
maining tenants  to  erect  substantial  buildings, 
lay  off  gardens,  plant  orchards,  and,  in  addition 
to  working  six  days  for  the  public  benefit,  to 
give  annually  to  the  public  store  one  pound  of 
silk,  twenty  bushels  of  corn,  and  sixty  pounds 
of  tobacco.  The  company  ordered  the  gov- 
ernor and  council  to  see  that  the  bricklayers 
engaged  by  Thorpe  be  compelled  to  go  on  and 
carry  out  their  contract.  "  The  work,  by  the 
assistance  of  God,  shall  again  proceed,"  the 
company  proudly  declared.  But  in  the  midst 
of  all  these  hopeful  signs  of  carrying  the  project 
to  a  successful  issue  there  came  a  greater  catas- 
trophe, which  destroyed  for  all  time  the  plans  for 
the  erection  of  a  college  at  Henrico.  This  was 
the  revocation  of  the  charter  of  the  London 
Company  in  1624.  "  The  original  plan  of 
making  the  education  of  the  Indians  its  primary 

66 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

object  would  have  been  rejected  altogether 
in  consequence  of  the  massacre,  and  the  insti- 
tution would  have  stood  as  the  earliest  of  all 
the  seats  of  learning  established  on  the  Ameri- 
can continent  for  the  benefit  of  the  trans- 
planted English.  .  .  .  Virginia,  in  such  an 
institution,  would  have  possessed  a  foundation 
that  would  have  been  clothed  with  the  deeply 
romantic  interest  thrown  around  the  colleges 
of  the  old  world  by  the  beautifying  touch  of 
time  and  by  the  glorious  achievements  of  their 
sons  on  every  stage  of  action  through  a  succes- 
sion of  centuries."  l 

The  college  itself  soon  became  a  mere  name, 
and  the  latest  reference  to  it  in  the  old  records 
was  in  1666,  when  one  of  the  tracts  belonging 
to  the  college  was  referred  to  as  the  college 
plantation. 

Another  Attempt  to  Establish  a  College.  —  In 
1624  Edward  Palmer  of  London  gave  all  his 
lands  in  Virginia  and  New  England  to  the 
establishment  of  a  university  and  schools  in 
Virginia,   to   be   called    Accidentia    Virginiensis 

1  "Institutional  History  of  Virginia,"  Vol.  I,  p.  370. 
67 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

et  Oxoniensis.  This  plan  provided  for  a  system 
of  schools  with  a  university  as  head  and  subor- 
dinate schools  or  academies.  The  donor  laid 
out  a  very  elaborate  plan  for  these  schools.  In 
laying  out  the  grounds  the  greatest  care  was 
to  be  taken.  The  plan  was  to  have  the  whole 
plat  with  a  series  of  streets  or  alleys  not  less 
than  twenty  feet  in  breadth.  The  fact  that 
this  bequest  was  conditioned  on  a  failing  of  heirs 
in  a  certain  line  of  descent  accounts  for  the 
failure  of  the  whole  scheme  ;  at  least  there  is 
no  evidence  that  anything  definite  was  done 
toward  establishing  such  a  system  of  institu- 
tions in  Virginia. 


68 


CHAPTER  VI 

WILLIAM   AND   MARY    COLLEGE 

Establishment  of  William  and  Mary  College. 
—  The  period  between  1624  and  the  close  of 
the  century  found  the  colonists  occupied  with 
matters  more  or  less  political,  and  we  hear 
nothing  of  a  further  effort  to  establish  an  in- 
stitution for  higher  learning  until  the  one  which 
resulted  in  the  organization  of  William  and 
Mary  College  at  Williamsburg.  The  rich 
planters,  during  all  this  time,  followed  the  prac- 
tice of  sending  their  boys  and  sometimes  their 
girls  to  the  grammar  schools  and  colleges  in  the 
mother  country.  Virginia  students  were  regis- 
tered at  the  various  schools  in  London  and  in 
Liverpool,  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  Their 
fathers,  now  settled  permanently  in  the  new 
world,  had  been  educated  in  the  most  con- 
spicuous schools  in  England,  and  it  was  but 
natural  that  in  the  absence  of  such  schools  in 

69 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

America  they  should  look  to  the  mother  country 
for  the  proper  tuition  of  their  children.  But  the 
remoteness  of  England,  together  with  the  ex- 
traordinary dangers  of  a  voyage  across  the 
Atlantic,  made  them  hesitate  to  depend  upon 
this  source  for  the  education  of  the  rising  genera- 
tion in  Virginia;  so,  after  the  restoration  of 
Charles  I,  we  find  a  sentiment  among  the  Vir- 
ginia planters  and  heads  of  the  government 
growing  in  favor  of  the  establishment  of  a  col- 
lege in  Virginia.  All  this  time  the  colony  had 
increased  in  population,  and  the  people  had 
begun  to  feel  that  this  was  their  permanent  home 
and  it  behooved  them  to  set  up  all  the  various 
institutions  that  characterized  a  people  of  cul- 
ture and  a  growing  civilization.  It  was  this 
combination  of  feelings  and  this  situation  that 
led  to  the  establishment  of  William  and  Mary 
College. 

First  Step  in  the  Establishment  of  a  College.  — 
As  early  as  1660  an  act  of  the  General  Assembly 
runs  "  that,  for  the  advance  of  learning,  educa- 
tion of  youth,  supply  of  ministry,  and  the  pro- 
motion of  piety  there  be  land  taken  upon  pur- 

70 


WILLIAM  AND   MARY  COLLEGE 

chases  for  a  college  and  free  school,  and  that 
there  be,  with  as  much  speed  as  may  be  conven- 
ient, housing  erected  thereon  for  entertainment 
of  students  and  schollers."  !  The  king  was  to 
be  petitioned  for  letters  patent,  authorizing 
collections  from  "  well-disposed  people  in  Eng- 
land for  the  erection  of  colleges  and  schools 
in  this  country."  This  is  an  evidence  of  genuine 
interest  in  education  on  the  part  of  the  legis- 
lature. Governor  Berkeley,  members  of  the 
council  of  state,  and  the  Burgesses  subscribed 
liberally  to  this  cause.  The  initiative  for  edu- 
cation in  this  early  time  always  came  from  the 
governing  authority,  and  this  sentiment  for 
education  among  the  colonists  grew  more  and 
more,  but  the  period  that  followed  after  the  res- 
toration was  a  period  of  distress  and  high  taxes, 
and  no  really  definite  action  was  taken  until 
1691,  when  the  Rev.  James  Blair,  a  Scotchman, 
and  one  of  the  leading  clergymen  in  Virginia, 
was  sent  to  England  by  the  General  Assembly 
of  Virginia  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  a  memo- 
rial prepared  by  that  body  to   the   king  and 

1  Hening,  Vol.  II,  p.  25. 
71 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

queen  of  England,  and  to  secure  a  charter  for 
a  college  in  Virginia.  Mr.  Blair  spent  almost 
two  years  in  England  before  securing  the  object 
of  his  visit.  This  time  was  spent  in  represent- 
ing the  cause  to  the  ecclesiastical,  civil,  and  royal 
dignitaries  of  England,  some  of  whom  delayed 
for  months  the  execution  of  their  part  in  the 
necessary  legal  procedure  through  which  the 
matter  had  to  pass.1  While  waiting  on  these 
officials,  Blair  took  advantage  of  certain  rather 
unique  situations  for  securing  funds  for  his  in- 
stitution in  Virginia.  He  secured  three  hundred 
pounds  from  a  group  of  merchants  who  were 
trading  very  largely  in  Virginia  commodities. 
He  also  received  three  hundred  pounds  from 
some  pirates  who  were  at  that  time  making  a 
settlement  with  the  English  government. 

Royal  Endowment.  —  The  English  govern- 
ment, under  the  direction  of  Queen  Mary  and 

1  Seymour,  the  attorney-general,  to  whom  the  matter  was  referred, 
was  in  no  hurry,  and  Blair,  eager  to  return  to  Virginia,  remarked  that 
the  college  would  prepare  ministers  for  the  Virginia  colony,  the  people 
of  which  had  souls  to  save  as  well  as  the  people  of  England.  To  this, 
Seymour  replied:  "Souls!  Damn  your  souls.  Make  tobacco."  See 
"William  and  Mary  College  History  and  Work,"  Lyon  G.  Tyler, 
p.  12. 

72 


WILLIAM  AND   MARY  COLLEGE 

King  William,  made  the  following  donations  to 
the  endowment  of  the  college  :  (1)  1985  pounds 
in  money,  (2)  tax  on  the  export  of  tobacco  from 
Maryland  and  Virginia  to  the  other  British 
plantations,  (3)  profits  of  the  office  of  surveyor- 
general  of  the  colony,  (4)  10,000  acres  of  land 
in  the  Pamunkey  Neck  in  Virginia  and  10,000 
acres  on  the  Blackwater.1  This  was  a  handsome 
endowment.  In  addition,  the  Rev.  James  Blair 
secured  a  gift  for  the  college  from  the  executor 
of  the  will  of  Hon.  Robert  Boyle,  who  had  re- 
cently died  in  England,  leaving  a  sum  of  four 
thousand  pounds  sterling,  the  income  from  which 
was  to  be  employed  for  "  pious  and  charitable 
uses."  All  the  rents  from  this  investment, 
except  ninety  pounds,  were  applied  to  the  college 
in  Virginia,  for  which  the  college  obligated  itself 
to  keep  as  many  Indians  as  this  sum  would 
support  in  meat,  drink,  clothes,  medicine,  books, 
and  education.  These  Indians  were  to  remain 
at   the    college    until    they    had    received    the 

1  On  condition  of  presenting  to  the  governor  two  copies  of  Latin  verse 
on  the  fifth  day  of  November  of  each  year.  This  requirement  must  not 
have  been  kept  up  very  long. 

73 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

training  necessary  to  be  given  "  orders  "  and 
sent  as  missionaries  among  their  own  race  in 
Virginia. 

Colonial  Endowment.  —  The  subscriptions 
among  the  colonists  for  the  endowment  of  the 
college  amounted  to  something  over  three 
thousand  pounds.  The  Virginia  House  of 
Burgesses  added  to  the  English  gifts  all  ex- 
port duties  on  skins  and  furs.  This  was  in 
1693.  In  1726  the  General  Assembly  gave 
two  hundred  pounds  per  annum  for  twenty- 
one  years  out  of  the  duty  of  one  penny  a 
gallon  on  liquors,  and  in  1734  they  gave  the 
whole  of  this  tax  to  the  college  for  the  re- 
mainder of  the  term.  The  tax  on  liquors  was 
continued  throughout  the  colonial  period,  and 
was  in  1764  the  greatest  single  source  of  revenue, 
817  pounds.  In  1759  a  special  tax  was  levied 
on  pedlers,  and  this  was  turned  into  the  college 
fund.  The  annual  revenues  of  the  college  up  to 
the  Revolution  amounted  to  about  two  thousand 
pounds,  or  about  $30,000  in  present  money.1 

1  See  a  statement  of  the  revenues  for  ten  years,  1755-65,  in  William 
and  Mary  College  Quarterly,  Vol.  XI,  pp.  149-53. 

74 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY  COLLEGE 

Scholarships.  —  There  were  ten  scholarships. 
The  House  of  Burgesses  established  three. 
Colonel  Hill  of  Shirley  and  Robert  Carter  (King 
Carter)  together  established  one;  Mrs.  Sarah 
Bray  of  New  Kent,  one;  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Harri- 
son of  Surry,  one;  Rev.  James  Blair,  of  Williams- 
burg, two;  and  Philip  Lightfoot  of  Sandy  Point, 
two. 

The  Board  of  Trustees,  the  governing  board 
of  the  college,  was  originally  elected  by  the  civil 
authority,  the  House  of  Burgesses,  and  the 
council.  One-fourth  of  the  number  of  members 
was  to  come  from  the  clergy  class.  This  body 
was  to  have  the  power  of  filling  vacancies  in  its 
number,  and  just  as  soon  as  the  college  was  fully 
organized  according  to  the  charter  they  were  to 
transfer  the  active  control  of  the  institution  to 
the  president  and  the  masters  of  the  college, 
the  Board  retaining  visitorial  powers  only. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  first  Board  of  Trus- 
tees :  Francis  Nicholson,  governor,  William 
Cole,  Ralph  Wormley,  William  Byrd,  John  Lear, 
James  Blair,  John  Farnifold,  Stephen  Fouace, 
Samuel  Grey,  Thomas  Milner,  Christopher  Rob- 

75 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

inson,  Charles  Scarborough,  John  Smith,  Benja- 
min Harrison,  Miles  Cary,  Henry  Hartwell, 
William  Randolph,  and  Matthew  Page.  Ac- 
cording to  the  charter,  the  college  society  was  to 
consist  of  one  president,  six  professors,  one 
hundred,  more  or  less,  scholars.  The  faculty, 
or,  as  it  was  called  then,  "  the  Society," 
was  to  elect  from  their  number  or  from  the 
Visitors  or  from  "the  better  sort  of  inhabit- 
ants "  one  burgess  to  represent  them  in  the 
Assembly.1 

The  Location  of  the  College.  —  The  General 
Assembly  had  within  its  power  the  right  to  pass 
finally  upon  the  site  of  the  college.  The  trustees 
selected  first  a  site  on  York  River,  just  above 
Yorktown,  known  as  Townsend's  land,  but  seri- 
ous objections  having  arisen,  that  site  was  aban- 
doned. In  October,  1693,  after  an  address  by 
the  Rev.  James  Blair,  the  Assembly  selected  the 
Middle  Plantation  as  the  most  "  convenient  and 

1  "  A  writ  is  ordered  to  be  issued  for  electing  a  Burgess  to  represent  the 
college  of  William  and  Mary  in  the  room  of  Sir  John  Randolph,  deceased, 
and  we  are  credibly  informed  that  Edmund  Barradale  Esq.,  Attorney 
General  of  this  colony,  will  be  unanimously  elected."  News  item, 
Virginia  Gazette,  November  3,  1738. 

76 


WILLIAM  AND   MARY  COLLEGE 

proper  site,"  and  ordered  that  the  college  be 
erected  as  near  as  possible  to  the  church  (Bruton 
Church)  then  standing  in  Middle  Plantation. 
On  December  20,  1693,  the  trustees  purchased 
from  Col.  Thomas  Ballard,  for  170  pounds, 
330  acres  west  of  the  church. 

The  Erection  of  Buildings.  —  Thomas  Hadley, 
whom  Dr.  Blair  had  brought  from  England, 
was  given  the  management  of  the  affairs  con- 
nected with  the  construction  of  the  college. 
The  plan  for  the  college  buildings  had  been 
drawn  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  the  eminent 
architect  who  had  designed  St.  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral, London.  The  buildings  consisted  of  a 
rectangular  structure  two  and  a  half  stories 
high,  130  feet  long,  40  feet  wide,  with  two  wings 
60  feet  long  and  25  feet  wide.  The  bricks  used 
for  its  construction  were  made  near  the  site  by 
Col.  Daniel  Parke.  The  walls  of  the  building 
were  three  feet  thick,  and  the  outer  course  was 
laid  in  English  bond,  having  alternate  courses 
of  stretchers  and  glazed  headers.  In  1697  the 
rector  of  the  college,  Rev.  Stephen  Fouace, 
reported   to   Governor  Andros   that  they  had 

77 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

completed  the  front  and  north  side  of  the  pro- 
posed rectangle.  The  first  two  floors  of  the  front 
contained  recitation  rooms  and  the  north  wing 
was  used  for  an  assembly  hall  and  a  dining- 
room.  The  offices  and  rooms  for  the  president 
and  scholars  were  in  the  garret  of  the  front  and  in 
the  hall  of  the  wing.  The  rear  was  never  built. 
Financial  Difficulties.  —  Owing  to  some  dis- 
agreements between  the  governor  and  Presi- 
dent Blair,  the  subscriptions  so  generously  made 
by  the  colonists  at  the  beginning  of  the  agitation 
for  a  college  had  not  been  promptly  paid,  and  it 
seems  that  of  the  three  thousand  pounds  sub- 
scribed only  eight  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
had  been  collected  (1697).  The  General  As- 
sembly felt  called  upon  several  times  to  pass 
resolutions  urging  the  payment  of  these  sub- 
scriptions. Even  this  legislative  action  was 
not  sufficient  to  make  a  complete  collection  of 
the  amount  subscribed,  and  some  of  the  sub- 
scribers were  sued  in  the  courts.  The  king  of 
England  sent  a  personal  letter  to  the  governor 
of  Virginia,  requiring  him  to  do  everything 
possible  to  secure  the  amount  subscribed. 

78 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY  COLLEGE 

The  Opening  of  the  Grammar  School.  —  The 
original  plan  was  that  there  should  be  a  grammar 
school  in  connection  with  the  college  where  stu- 
dents might  secure  the  necessary  training  in 
Latin  and  Greek  for  entering  upon  the  studies 
of  philosophy,  divinity,  and  mathematics.  Rev. 
James  Blair,  wisely  anticipating  all  the  needs 
of  the  college,  while  in  England  secured  the  ser- 
vices of  a  Scotchman,  the  Rev.  Mongo  Inglis, 
Master  of  Arts,  Edinburgh  University,  as  head- 
master of  the  grammar  school.  He  was  assisted 
by  Mr.  Mullikin  as  usher,  and  also  by  a  writing 
master.  This  school  was  opened  in  1694  in  a 
building  already  in  use  for  that  purpose.  In 
May,  1697,  the  members  of  the  House  of  Bur- 
gesses attended  the  scholastic  exercises  and  were 
u  impressed  and  pleased  with  the  proficiency  of 
the  scholars.' '  The  commencement  exercises 
of  the  college  in  1700  were  attended  by  people 
from  many  parts  of  Virginia,  others  coming  from 
Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  and  even  New  York. 

The  salary  of  the  master  of  the  grammar  school 
was  at  first  eighty  pounds  a  year  and  varied  at 
different  periods  from  that  to  one  hundred  and 

79 


v 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

fifty  as  the  school  and  college  developed.  The 
usher  received  anywhere  from  thirty  to  eighty 
pounds  per  annum.  There  were  always  extra 
fees  which  usually  amounted  to  twenty  shil- 
lings a  year  from  each  scholar. 

The  Opening  of  the  College.  —  The  first 
building  was  burned  October  20,  1705,  before 
it  had  been  used  for  any  purpose  except  the 
grammar  school  and  offices  for  the  government 
and  a  meeting-place  for  the  Assembly  while 
the  State  House  was  building  at  the  other  end 
of  Duke  of  Gloucester  Street.  By  1710  the  col- 
lege had  been  rebuilt  on  the  old  walls,  and  in 
1729  the  south  wing  was  added  according  to  the 
original  plan,  and  was  made  the  chapel.  Gradu- 
ally, as  the  interest  in  learning  increased  and 
students  of  the  grammar  school  advanced  in 
the  studies  of  Latin  and  Greek,  which  were  then 
regarded  as  a  necessary  preparation  for  the 
studies  of  philosophy,  divinity,  and  so  on,  one 
chair  after  another  was  established,  and  some 
of  the  best  scholars  from  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
were  called,  till  the  six  professorships  provided 
for  in  the  charter  were  filled.     Not  till  1729  were 

80 


WILLIAM  AND   MARY  COLLEGE 

all  the  departments  founded;  then,  pursuant  to 
the  charter,  the  trustees  signed  the  deed  trans- 
ferring all  the  college  property  to  the  president  y 
and  masters,  who  took  charge  of  the  college 
affairs  by  subscribing  their  assent  to  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England  and 
taking  oath  de  fideli  administratiohe. 

The  Curriculum  of  the  College.  —  The  course  " 
of  study  was  divided  into  three  distinct  depart- 
ments :  (1)  the  grammar  school,  where  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages  were  taught.  The 
boys  entered  this  school  at  about  nine  years 
of  age  and  while  there  were  called  scholars. 
(2)  Next  came  the  school  of  philosophy,  which 
was  divided  into  two  parts;  the  first  consisting 
of  moral  philosophy,  rhetoric,  logic,  and  ethics, 
and  the  second,  "  physicks,  metaphysics,  and 
mathematics."  The  boys  entered  this  depart- 
ment at  about  fifteen  years  of  age,  assumed  the 
cap  and  gown,  and  were  known  as  students.  It 
was  the  college  proper.  Two  years  were  re- 
quired in  this  school  for  the  Bachelor  of  Arts 
degree  and  two  years  in  addition  for  the  Master 
of  Arts.  In  1878  this  was  changed  to  four  years 
q  81 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

for  the  Bachelor  of  Arts  degree  and  seven  years 
for  the  Master  of  Arts.  (3)  The  third  depart- 
ment was  the  divinity  school,  in  which  there 
were  two  professors.  The  one  taught  Hebrew 
and  the  other  explained  the  "  common  places  of 
divinity  and  the  controversies  with  the  heretics." 
In  all  these  schools  the  student  had  constant 
exercises  in  debates.  The  president  lectured  on 
theological  subjects  once  a  week,  but  conducted 
no  regular  classes. 

Besides  these  schools,  there  was  an  elemen- 
tary school  for  the  Indian  boys,  to  which  the 
little  boys  of  the  town  were  admitted,  presided 
over  by  one  of  the  faculty. 

The  Powers  Vested  in  the  Faculty.  —  The 
president  and  faculty  elected  all  officers  of  the 
college,  such  as  usher  of  the  grammar  school, 
bursar,  librarian,  janitor,  cook,  butler,  gardener, 
and  so  on.  According  to  the  old  monastic  view 
of  colleges  in  England,  the  professors  were  un- 
married. Only  the  president  had  the  privilege 
of  having  a  family,  and  the  violation  of  this  rule 
brought  about  much  disturbance  in  the  college. 
Two  professors  were  removed  for  marrying  dur- 

82 


WILLIAM  AND   MARY  COLLEGE 

ing  the  incumbency  of  their  positions  at  William 
and  Mary.1  The  number  of  scholars  and  stu- 
dents before  the  American  Revolution  never 
exceeded  one  hundred  and  twenty,  which,  how- 
ever, compared  well  with  the  northern  colleges. 
The  Brasserton  School.  —  By  the  gift  of 
Robert  Boyle,  Indians  had  been  trained  at 
William  and  Mary.  In  1712  there  were  twenty 
Indians  at  the  college.  Governor  Spottswood 
kept  a  watchful  eye  on  the  Indians  in  Virginia 
and  demanded  of  the  chiefs  some  of  their  sons  to 
be  sent  to  the  college  and  retained  as  hostages,2 
hoping  that  after  a  period  of  training  in  the 
Christian  religion  they  would  return  to  their 
respective  tribes  and  serve  as  missionaries  to 
their  people,  but  it  seems  that  no  lasting  good 
came  from  this  policy  of  educating  the  Indians. 
Catechetical  training  was  not  the  kind  of  teach- 
ing that  would  elevate  this  crude  man  of  the 

1  In  1758  Rev.  William  Preston  and  Rev.  Thomas  Robinson  were 
removed  for  marrying  and  keeping  their  families  at  the  college,  "  contrary 
to  all  rules  of  seats  of  learning." 

2  After  the  Revolutionary  War  the  Brasserton  fund  was  withdrawn 
from  the  college  through  a  suit  brought  by  the  Bishop  of  London  and 
diverted  to  the  education  of  negroes  in  the  West  Indies.  The  Indian 
school  was  discontinued. 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

forest  into  the  culture  and  civilization  of  the 
white  man.  At  this  time  there  were  a  few 
mission  centres  among  the  Indians  in  different 
parts  of  Virginia,  maintained  jointly  by  the  As- 
sembly and  charitably  inclined  people  in  Vir- 
ginia and  England.1 

The  college  was  operated  on  the  general  plan 
of  Oxford  University.  Nearly  all  the  professors 
had  received  their  training  at  this  great  educa- 
tional institution  in  the  mother  country  and 
brought  to  William  and  Mary  the  ripest  scholar- 
ship and  highest  culture  of  England.  Dr.  Blair, 
who  was  president  of  the  college  for  fifty  years, 
died  in  1743.  He  was  the  most  scholarly  man  in 
the  colony,  and  his  influence  was  effective  and 
vigorous  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  ecclesi- 
astical, educational,  and  political  affairs  of  the 
colony.     William  Dawson,  professor  of   Moral 

1  Rev.  Charles  Griffin  conducted  a  school  among  the  Saponies  at 
Fort  Christianna  in  Brunswick  County.  At  one  time  he  had  as  many  as 
seventy-seven  Indians  in  his  school.  Griffin  was  afterwards  transferred 
to  the  Indian  school  at  the  college  (1720).  The  Rev.  Hugh  Jones,  in 
speaking  of  this,  says  the  Sapony  Indians  so  loved  and  adored  Mr. 
Griffin  that  he  had  seen  them  hug  him  and  lift  him  up  in  their  arms. 
They  would  have  made  him  the  king  of  the  Sapony  nation.  See  "  Present 
State  of  Virginia,"  Hugh  Jones,  p.  15. 

84 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY  COLLEGE 

Philosophy,  who  succeeded  Dr.  Blair  as  presi- 
dent, had  spent  nine  years  at  Oxford.  William 
Stith,  another  president,  was  a  native  of  Virginia, 
but  had  studied  in  the  grammar  school  at  Wil- 
liam and  Mary  and  later  had  graduated  at 
Oxford. 

The  College  the  Centre  of  Learning.  —  The 
seat  of  culture  in  Virginia  shifted  from  James- 
town to  Williamsburg.  The  intellectual  atmos- 
phere of  the  college  and  the  situation  of  Williams- 
burg on  higher  ground,  with  a  more  salubrious 
climate,  were  the  chief  factors  in  bringing  about 
this  change.  Ultimately,  in  1698,  the  capital 
was  moved  from  Jamestown  to  Williamsburg. 
The  Assembly  held  its  sessions  from  1700  to  1704 
in  the  college  buildings  while  its  State  House  was 
being  built  at  the  other  end  of  the  Duke  of 
Gloucester  Street.  Williamsburg  became  the 
centre  of  the  political  and  social  life  of  Virginia. 
Hugh  Jones,  in  his  "  Present  State  of  Virginia  " 
(1724),  describes  the  life  of  Williamsburg  in  the 
following  words : 

At  the  Capital  at  publick  Times  may  be  seen  a  great 
number  of  handsome  and  well  dressed  compleat  Gentle- 

85 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

men  and  at  the  Governor's  House  upon  birth  nights  and 
at  balls  and  assemblies  I  have  seen  as  fine  an  appear- 
ance, as  good  diversion,  and  as  splendid  entertainments 
in  Governor  Spottswood's  time  as  I  have  seen  anywhere 
else.  They  (the  people)  live  in  the  same  neat  manner, 
dress  after  the  same  Modes,  and  behave  themselves 
exactly  as  the  Gentry  in  London.  Most  Families  of  any 
Note  having  a  coach,  chariot  or  chaise. 

Williamsburg  must  have  been  at  one  time  the 
most  cultured  place  in  America.1  Some  of  the 
rich  planters  came  with  their  sons  and  daughters 
and  spent  the  winter  months  in  the  city,  the  sons 
to  attend  William  and  Mary  College,  and  the 
daughters  to  enjoy  the  social  and  cultural  at- 
mosphere of  the  capital.  Not  only  the  lighter 
and  more  enjoyable  features  of  social  life  were 
indulged  in,  such  as  dancing,  musical  entertain- 
ments, theatre-going,  and  private  social  func- 
tions, but  there  was  an  interest  in  the  more 
intellectual  matters,  as  is  evidenced  by  the 
numerous  announcements  in  the  Virginia  Ga- 

1  As  London  and  the  University  were  in  some  sense  England,  Paris 
and  its  University,  France,  so  Williamsburg,  while  it  was  the  seat  of 
Government,  and  the  College  of  William  and  Mary  were,  to  a  great 
extent,  Virginia.  "Old  Churches  and  Families,"  Bishop  Meade,  Vol.  I, 
p.  188. 

86 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY  COLLEGE 

zette.      This  paper  of  May   13,   1773,  has  the 
following  item : 

We  hear  that  a  philosophical  society,  consisting  of 
one  hundred  members,  is  established  under  the  Patronage 
of  His  Excellency,  the  Governor,  for  the  Advancement  of 
Useful  Knowledge  in  this  Colony,  of  which  the  following 
gentlemen  were  elected  officers  for  the  year  ensuing: 
John  Clayton,  Esq.,  author  of  the  Flora  Virginica,  Presi- 
dent, John  Page  of  Rosewell,  Esq.,  Vice  President,  the 
Rev.  Samuel  Henley,  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy, 
Secretary,  Mr.  St.  George  Tucker,  Assistant  Secretary, 
David  Jameson,  Esq.,  Treasurer. 

The  Virginia  Gazette  of  July  14,  1768,  con- 
tained an  advertisement  of  Purdie  &  Dixon,  of  a 
collection  of  478  books  "to  be  sold  at  the  post 
office."  This  list  of  books  contains  literature 
of  every  class,  including  books  for  children,  on 
philosophy,  on  religion,  on  agriculture,  on  poetry, 
and  the  complete  works  of  Shakespeare  and  Vol- 
taire.1 

1  The  following  schoolbooks  were  included  in  the  advertisement : 
"Ruddiman's  Rudiments  and  Grammar.  Clark's  Introduction  and  his 
translation  of  Cordery,  Erasmus,  Eutropius,  Salust,  Justin,  Ovid,  Nepos, 
and  yEsop.  Mair's  Introduction.  Tyro's  (a  very  useful  book  for  young 
students)  and  his  translation  of  Salust.  Auol's  Nepos,  London  vocabu- 
lary. Profodia  Construed.  Libby's  and  Ward's  Grammars.  Castalio's 
Dialogues.     Stirling's  Pheedius.     Ciceronis   Orationes,    Salust,    Justin, 

87 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

During  the  presidency  of  Rev.  Thomas 
Dawson,  1705  to  1761,  dissensions  arose  over  the 
"  Two  Penny  Act."  This  quarrel  between  the 
ministers  and  the  people  generally  developed 
into  a  great  political  turmoil  throughout  the 
colony.  Suits  were  brought  by  several  of  the 
ministers  against  the  vestries  for  losses  incurred 
in  their  salaries.  One  of  these  suits  was  the  oc- 
casion of  Patrick  Henry's  famous  speech  that 
brought  him  into  prominence  in  Virginia  politics. 

There  was  a  rapid  succession  of  men  holding 
the  position  of  president  of  the  college  fron  1755 
to  the  opening  of  the  Revolutionary  War.  The 
Rev.  John  Camm  was  the  last  of  the  colonial 
presidents.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  England.  He  was  a  stanch 
friend  of  Lord  Dunmore,  the  last  colonial  gov- 
ernor of  Virginia.  The  Rev.  John  Camm  was 
succeeded  as  president  of  the  college  in  1777  by 
Rev.   James   Madison,  who,  in    1775,   went   to 

Cornelius  Nepos,  Juvenal,  and  Florus,  Delphine.  Horace  Minellii. 
Mattaire's  Ovid,  Pearce's  Longinus.  Trapp's  Prselectiones.  Tully's 
Offices.  Schrivellii  Lexicon.  Greek  Grammar.  Greek  Sentential. 
Clark's  and  Mattaire's  Homer.  Boyer's  Dictionary  and  Grammar. 
Pamela,  Memoirs  of  Madam  Pompadour,  and  The  Chinese  Spying 
French."     Virginia  Gazette,  July  14,  1768. 

88 


WILLIAM  AND   MARY  COLLEGE 

England  for  ordination  and  returned  the  next 
year.  Madison  was  as  strong  a  Republican  as 
Camm  was  a  Loyalist.  In  his  sermons  he  never 
spoke  of  heaven  as  a  kingdom  but  as  that 
"  great  republic  where  there  was  no  distinction 
of  rank  and  where  all  men  were  free  and  equal."  x 
During  the  war  the  faculty  consisted  of  only 
three  members,  and  the  college  was  in  session 
during  the  years  of  turmoil  except  a  few  months 
before  and  after  the  siege  of  Yorktown. 

The  Organization  of  the  First  Greek  Letter 
Fraternity  in  America.  —  The  Phi  Beta  Kappa 
Society  was  originally  organized  at  William  and 
Mary  College,  December  5,  1776.  In  1779 
Elisha  Parmalee,  a  student  at  William  and 
Mary  from  Connecticut,  was  given  permission 
to  organize  chapters  at  Harvard  and  Yale. 
From  this  parent  organization  at  William  and 
Mary  College,  all  the  Greek  letter  fraternities 
in  the  United  States  have  sprung.  There  was 
a  still  older  fraternity,  of  which  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son was  a  member,  known  as  the  "  Flat  Hat 
Club,"  founded  in  1750. 

1  See  "  History  of  William  and  Mary  College,"  Lyon  G.  Tyler,  p.  58. 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

William  and  Mary  College  after  the  Revolu- 
tion. —  William  and  Mary  College  suffered 
severe  losses  as  a  result  of  the  Revolutionary 
War.  Though  President  Madison  was  made  the 
first  bishop  of  the  Episcopal  church  in  America, 
the  college  never  again  had  an  official  connection 
with  religion.  The  capital  of  Virginia  was  re- 
moved from  Williamsburg  to  Richmond  in  1780. 
The  state  laws  for  its  support  were  discontinued. 
Three  years  after  the  Revolution,  its  available 
capital  amounted  to  2503  pounds  and  four 
shillings.  It  still  retained  extensive  land  grants, 
and,  in  1784,  the  General  Assembly  voted  to 
the  college  some  public  lands  in  and  around 
Williamsburg  and  Jamestown. 

Some  Innovations  at  William  and  Mary  Col- 
lege. —  Through  the  influence  of  President 
Madison  and  Thomas  Jefferson,  then  a  member 
of  the  Board  of  Trustees,  the  college  was  re- 
organized in  1779  and  made  a  University.  The 
grammar  school  was  abolished,  also  the  two 
divinity  schools,  and,  instead,  were  introduced 
schools  of  (1)  modern  languages,  (2)  municipal 
law,  (3)  medicine.     Under  this  arrangement,  the 

90 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY  COLLEGE 

faculty  was  composed  of  James  Madison,  D.D., 
president,  professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  and 
Mathematics;  George  Wythe,  LL.D.,  professor 
of  Law  and  Police;  James  McClurg,  professor 
of  Anatomy  and  Medicine;  Robert  Andrews, 
A.M.,  professor  of  Moral  Philosophy,  the  Law 
of  Nature  and  of  Nations,  and  Fine  Arts;  and 
Charles  Bellini,  professor  of  Modern  Languages. 
Charles  Bellini  was  the  first  professor  of  Modern 
Languages  in  the  United  States,  and  George 
Wythe  was  the  first  professor  of  Law.  Presi- 
dent Madison  was  the  first  to  introduce  into 
a  college  curriculum  a  regular  system  of  lectures 
on  political  economy. 

Dr.  William  Small  had  been  the  first  to  intro- 
duce the  lecture  system  in  college  teaching  in 
lieu  of  the  formal  recitation  from  the  text-book, 
and  in  1779  a  faculty  minute  reads : 

Resolved,  That  the  lectures  in  the  different  schools 
shall  commence  for  the  ensuing  year  on  the  17th  of 
January. 

The  same  year  the  elective  system  was  in-  yi 
troduced  into  William  and  Mary  College,  by 
which  the  student  was  permitted  to  choose  his 

91 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

course  at  college.     In  that  year  a  faculty  min- 
ute reads : 

That  the  student  on  paying  annually  one  thousand 
pounds  of  tobacco  shall  be  entitled  to  attend  any  two  of 
the  following  professors,  viz.,  of  law  and  police,  of  natural 
philosophy  and  mathematics,  and  of  moral  philosophy, 
the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nations  and  the  fine  arts ;  and 
that  for  fifteen  hundred  pounds  he  shall  be  entitled  to 
attend  any  three  professors,  the  fees  to  be  paid  at  that 
period  of  the  year  when  the  course  of  lectures  commences. 

The  principle  upon  which  the  honor  system  ! 
is  based  also  had  its  origin  at  this  time  in  William 
and  Mary  College.  The  policy  of  the  faculty, 
in  controlling  the  students  without  harassing 
them  with  petty  regulations  or  subjecting  them 
to  embarrassment  by  espionage  in  the  class  room 
and  on  examination,  was  put  into  effect.  The 
principle  was  carried  out  without  any  rules  and 
received  printed  recognition  in  1817,  when  the 
statutes  of  the  Visitors  contained  a  provision 
requiring  students  to  "  give  evidence  on  their 
honor  respecting  offences." 

Subsequent  Events  Connected  with  the  Col- 
lege. —  President  Madison  died  in  1812.     Dur- 

1  See  "History  of  William  and  Mary  College,"  Lyon  G.  Tyler,  p.  66. 

92 


WILLIAM  AND   MARY  COLLEGE 

ing  his  administration  the  college  prospered  and 
served  the  state  and  the  nation  well  in  prepar- 
ing men  who  later  took  important  part  in  the 
building  up  of  the  nation  in  America.  Williams- 
burg and  the  college  became  the  hotbed  of  re- 
publicanism. French  rationalism  and  atheism 
were  rampant  in  society.  Drunkenness  and 
duelling  caused  the  professors  much  trouble  from 
1802  to  1808. 

In  the  endeavor  to  establish  a  state  univer- 
sity there  was  a  strong  effort  to  move  William 
and  Mary  College  to  Richmond,  but,  by  the  in- 
fluence of  John  Tyler,  the  rector,  and  John  B. 
Seawell,  of  the  trustees,  and  Judge  Semple,  of 
the  faculty,  the  college  remained  at  its  ancient 
site.  This  effort  to  remove  the  college  and  the 
opening  of  the  University  of  Virginia  had  the 
effect  of  causing  a  period  of  decline,  but  it 
maintained  itself  up  to  the  Civil  War  without 
a  decrease  of  its  productive  endowment.  Dur- 
ing the  administration  of  Thomas  R.  Dew 
(1836-46),  the  attendance  was  probably  greater 
than  that  at  the  university.  In  1839,  the  num- 
ber   reached    140,   of    whom    thirty    were    law 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

students.  This  was  the  largest  number  that 
ever  attended  the  college  before  1889.  At  the 
opening  of  the  war  the  faculty  and  students 
hurried  off  to  join  the  Confederate  Army.  In 
1862  the  main  building  was  burned  while 
occupied  by  the  Federal  troops. 

The  College  after  the  Civil  War.  —  In  1869 
the  college  was  reopened,  with  Col.  Benjamin 
S.  Ewell  as  president.  The  buildings  had  been 
restored  and  the  faculty  was  again  recognized, 
but  the  institution  had  passed  through  so  many 
adversities  that  it  was  impossible  to  restore  the 
college  to  its  ancient  prestige,  and  it  closed  its 
doors  in  1881,  not  to  open  again  for  seven  years. 
In  1860  the  endowment  fund  raised  since  the 
Revolution  by  the  sale  of  its  landed  estate 
amounted  to  only  $150,000,  but  the  war  had  left 
in  1865  not  over  $30,000. 

The  College  Transferred  to  the  State.  —  In 
1888  the  trustees  of  the  college  sought  aid  from 
the  state  legislature  and  presented  a  bill  for  its 
reorganization.  It  was  received  with  favor, 
and  the  General  Assembly  appropriated  annu- 
ally to  its   support  ten  thousand  dollars  and 

94 


WILLIAM  AND   MARY  COLLEGE 

provided  that  twenty  men  should  compose  the 
Board  of  Trustees.  Ten  of  the  old  Board  were 
retained  and  ten  were  appointed  by  the  governor, 
the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  being 
an  ex  officio  member.  Dr.  Lyon  G.  Tyler  was 
made  president,  and  the  college  started  off  on 
a  new  era  of  service.  Another  act  passed  in 
1906  put  the  college  upon  the  basis  of  a  regular 
state  institution.  The  property  of  the  college 
was  transferred  from  the  old  corporation  to  the 
new,  styled  "  the  College  of  William  and  Mary 
in  Virginia."  This  act  provided  that  the  corpo- 
ration should  consist  of  eleven  members ;  namely, 
the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
and  ten  gentlemen  appointed  by  the  governor, 
each  to  serve  for  four  years. 

The  college  prospered  under  this  management. 
It  now  has  a  productive  endowment  of  $154,000, 
and  receives  from  the  state  annually  $40,000. 
It  has  twelve  buildings,  fairly  equipped,  a  library 
of  18,000  volumes,  and  a  corps  of  twenty-five 
instructors  with  over  240  students.  The  college 
maintains  a  department  of  education  and  a 
practice  school.     In   addition   to   retaining   its 

95 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

ancient  character  as  a  classical  college,  it  is 
the  pedagogical  school  for  the  training  of  men 
teachers  for  the  state.  It  serves  the  specific 
function  of  preparing  principals  and  super- 
intendents of  schools.  The  last  report  of 
the  state  high  school  inspector  shows  that 
William  and  Mary  College  furnishes  more  grad- 
uates teaching  in  the  public  schools  than  any 
other  college  in  Virginia.  There  is  an  ever  in- 
creasing and  ever  widening  demand  for  the 
specific  work  that  it  has  undertaken. 

Summary.  —  William  and  Mary  College  is 
y  the  second  oldest  institution  for  higher  educa- 
tion in  the  United  States,  and  was  the  first  to 
have  a  full  faculty  of  regular  professors.  The 
college  was  more  typically  English  than  any  of 
the  other  higher  institutions  of  learning  in  Amer- 
ica, having  been  established  by  the  king  and 
queen  of  England  and  named  for  them.  It 
received  a  coat-of-arms  from  the  College  of  Her- 
alds in  London.  William  and  Mary  College  is 
conducted  upon  the  same  plan  as  Oxford,  main- 
taining the  same  curricula  and  holding  to  the 
same  ideals.     One  of  its  primary  functions  is  to 


WILLIAM  AND   MARY  COLLEGE 

prepare  ministers  for  the  churches  in  Virginia 
and  missionaries  to  the  Indians.  It  also  per- 
forms the  function  of  preparing  learned  men  for 
the  professions  of  law  and  medicine,  and  public 
men  for  the  state  and  the  nation.  President 
Tyler,  in  summing  up  the  main  points  in  the 
history  of  William  and  Mary,  maintains  the 
following : 

It  was  the  first  college  in  the  United  States  to  have 
a  full  faculty  of  professors  (1729) ;  the  first  to  adopt  the 
lecture  system  (1758) ;  the  first  to  establish  the  elective 
and  honor  systems  (1779) ;  the  first  to  widen  its  scope 
into  that  of  a  university  (1779) ;  the  first  to  establish 
courses  in  municipal  and  constitutional  law  (1779), 
modern  languages  (1779),  political  economy  (1779),  his- 
tory (1803) ;  the  first  to  organize  a  Greek  letter  inter- 
collegiate fraternity,  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society. 

The  alumni  of  William  and  Mary  College  prob- 
ably exerted  a  greater  influence  in  making  the 
nation  than  the  alumni  of  any  other  institution. 
Among  these  were  included  many  illustrious 
names  in  American  history.  Peyton  Randolph 
was  the  first  president  of  the  Continental  Con- 
gress in  1774.  Thomas  Jefferson  wrote  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence,  1776.  John  Tyler 
h  97 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Sr.,  carried  through  the  Virginia  legislature  the 
proposition  for  the  Annapolis  Convention,  1786. 
Edmund  Randolph  opened  the  proceedings  of 
the  Convention  at  Philadelphia  by  submitting 
the  "  Virginia  Plan  "  in  1787.  John  Marshall 
settled  the  construction  of  the  constitution. 
Three  presidents  of  the  United  States  were  Wil- 
liam and  Mary  graduates.  From  1789  to  1861 
sixteen  out  of  the  twenty-seven  senators  from 
Virginia  were  William  and  Mary  College  men. 

After  the  Civil  War,  through  the  exhaustion 
of  its  funds,  the  college  came  to  a  state  of  sus- 
pension for  a  period  of  seven  years,  but  in  1888 
the  state  came  to  its  rescue,  and  the  college  since 
then  has  had  a  continuous  development  along 
the  old  lines  of  preparing  men  for  position  in 
society,  and  the  new  lines  of  preparing  high-grade 
teachers  for  our  public  school  system. 

William  and  Mary  College  was  a  state  crea- 
tion at  first,  and  the  state  contributed  to  its  sup- 
port, but,  after  the  Revolutionary  War,  the 
state  and  the  college  drifted  apart.  However, 
in  1888,  the  state  again  came  to  its  aid  and  had 
partial  control  of  its  affairs.     In  1906  the  old 

98 


WILLIAM  AND   MARY  COLLEGE 

college  was  completely  taken  over  and  became 
a  full-fledged  state  institution,  and  since  that 
time  it  has  adjusted  its  course  of  study  and  set 
up  new  ideals  and  aims  for  the  future  and 
entered  upon  a  period  of  direct  service  to  the 
state.  Thus  the  "  ancient  "  college  of  William 
and  Mary,  though  modernized  and  under  com- 
plete state  control,  still  maintains  some  of  its 
fine  classical  standards  of  scholarship  and  ancient 
prestige. 


99 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE    FIRST    STATE    SUPPORT    OF    PUBLIC    EDUCA- 
TION 

Elementary  Education.  —  The  people  of  Vir- 
ginia have  always  manifested  a  genuine  interest 
in  education.  However,  they  have  not  always 
provided  for  the  training  of  all  her  people.  Po- 
litical and  social  conditions  at  this  time  were  not 
ripe  for  so  democratic  an  institution  as  the  public 
school  system,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  strong 
and  powerful  upper  class  and  a  great  mass  of 
people  who  could  be  denominated  "  poor."  The 
latter  were  for  centuries  exploited  more  or  less 
by  the  aristocracy.  The  idea  of  universal 
public  education  was  slow  to  take  form.  Pub- 
lic education,  administered  by  the  state,  was 
looked  upon  by  the  aristocracy  as  being  in- 
tended for  paupers.  The  poorer  class  resented 
the  attempt  to  pauperize  themselves  by  accept- 
ing the  proffered  aid  by  the  state    in  giving 

100 


STATE  SUPPORT  OF  PUBLIC   EDUCATION 

training  to  their  children.  Public  education 
was  looked  upon,  on  the  other  hand,  by  the  more 
powerful  and  ruling  class  as  a  means  of  charity 
intended  for  "  indigents  "  or  dependents.  Thus 
public  education  could  find  no  place  in  the  social 
fabric  of  Virginia,  until  a  strong  and  powerful 
middle  class  developed  a  truer  democracy  in 
which  public  education  could  best  prosper. 

Jefferson's  proposed  plan  of  public  education  X^ 
in  1779  was  based  upon  his  political  philosophy 
of  local  self-government  and  provided  for  no 
higher  authority  for  administration  than  the 
local  district  or  county.  The  matter  of  deter- 
mining whether  a  school  should  be  established 
at  all  was  left  to  those  same  local  authorities. 
This  was  the  main  reason  for  the  failure  of  the 
scheme,  for  those  in  authority  represented  the 
aristocratic  element,  and  in  many  instances 
they  did  not  see  the  logic  of  taxing  themselves 
to  establish  an  institution  which  they  themselves 
would  not  patronize.  Many  Assembly  meetings 
of  Virginia  from  1779  to  the  Civil  War  took 
up  for  consideration  the  bill  drafted  by  Jefferson 
and    his    friends.      In    1796    they    passed    the 

101 


BISTOB Y  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

famous  act  providing  a  system  of  primary 
schools  according  to  Jefferson's  plan,  though 
amending  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  defeat  the 
purpose  of  the  bill  in  its  very  incipiency.  The 
famous  amendment  stated: 

The  court  of  each  county  shall  determine  the  year 
in  which  the  aldermen  shall  be  appointed  and  until  they 
so  determine  no  election  shall  be  held. 

The  courts  were  careful  not  to  "  determine  the 
year  "  for  such  an  election,  and  of  course  no 
schools  were  established  under  this  act. 

From  this  time  on  to  the  Civil  War  there  were 
notable  efforts  by  the  different  legislatures  to 
establish  a  system  of  free  public  education.  The 
session  of  1817-18  had  up  for  consideration  a 
bill  which,  if  it  had  passed,  would  have  pro- 
vided a  good  scheme  of  public  education,  and 
would  have  served  as  a  nucleus  for  further  de- 
velopment into  an  effective  system  of  state 
education.  The  Lower  House  passed  the  act 
by  a  large  majority  (66  to  49),  but  the  Senate 
tied  (7  to  7),  and  the  speaker  of  that  body 
cast  the  deciding  vote  against  the  bill. 

From  1818  to  1846  the  people  of  the  state 
102 


STATE  SUPPORT  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

became  more  interested  in  higher  education  and 
secondary  education  than  in  a  system  of  primary 
schools.  Jefferson  concentrated  his  efforts  onY- 
the  establishment  of  a  great  university  for  the 
state,  which  resulted  in  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia in  1818.  The  various  church  denomina- 
tions were  at  this  time  busy  establishing  colleges 
for  Christian  education.  Hampden-Sidney, 
Washington  and  Lee,  Emory  and  Henry,  and 
Randolph  Macon  came  into  existence  during  ^^ 
this  period.  The  public  was  absorbed  in  the  ef- 
fort to  get  these  institutions  firmly  established, 
and  this  scheme  for  providing  free  schools  was 
neglected  and  had  to  wait  until  1846  or  even 
later  for  a  more  effective  system  of  free,  public 
education.  The  act  of  1846  provided  for  a 
system  of  primary  schools,  but  was  only  per- 
missory.  The  act  required  the  assent  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  electors  of  the  county  before  the 
plan  could  be  put  into  operation.  In  a  few 
specific  instances  the  plan  was  adopted  by  a 
majority  vote  of  the  electors.1 

1  Albemarle,  Norfolk,  and  Washington  counties  were  given  this  special 
privilege.  Norfolk  County  probably  made  the  best  use  of  this  scheme  of 
public  instruction. 

103 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

This  general  plan  was  adopted  by  nine 
counties,  and  survived  in  a  few  up  to  the  Civil 
War.  This  scheme  provided  no  state  control. 
The  funds  for  its  support  came  from  local  taxa- 
tion and  the  distribution  of  the  moneys  from 
The  Literary  Fund,  the  establishment  and  evo- 
lution of  which  we  now  come  to  examine. 

The  Literary  Fund.  —  The  Literary  Fund 
was  established  by  act  of  February  2,  1810. 
This  formed  the  nucleus  for  the  support  of 
free  schools  in  Virginia.  The  act  ordered  that 
,/.  all  "  escheats,  confiscations,  fines,  penalties 
and  forfeitures,  and  all  rights  accruing  to  the 
state  as  derelict,  shall  be  set  aside  for  the  en- 
couragement of  learning."  In  1816  the  Legis- 
lature added  to  this  accumulative  fund  the 
amount  of  $1,210,550,  which  represented  a 
loan  to  the  federal  government  for  the  War  of 
1812  and  was  returned  to  the  state.  The  consti- 
tution of  1851  provided  that  one-half  of  the  capi- 
tation tax  should  go  to  The  Literary  Fund, 
and  the  General  Assembly  of  1853  appropriated 
all  the  tax  from  this  source  to  this  fund. 

In  1811  an  act  defined  the  purpose  of  this 

104 


STATE  SUPPORT  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

fund  as  "  providing  schools  for  the  poor  in  any 
county  of  the  State."  By  the  same  act,  the 
governor,  the  lieutenant  governor,  treasurer, 
attorney-general,  and  the  president  of  the 
court  of  appeals  were  made  a  corporate  body, 
to  have  control  of  this  fund  under  the  title, 
"  President  and  Directors  of  The  Literary 
Fund."  This  Board  was  to  invest  the  funds 
and  dispose  of  the  interest  as  directed  by  the 
General  Assembly. 

The  Legislature  had  provided  also  that  when 
the  income  from  this  fund  amounted  to  $45,000 
annually,  it  should  be  used  for  the  education  of 
the  "  indigent "  white  children,  distributed  on 
the  basis  of  the  white  population  in  the  counties. 
The  second  auditor  of  the  state  distributed 
these  funds  to  the  counties  according  to  the 
order  of  the  General  Assembly. 

In  each  county  the  respective  County  Courts 
appointed  commissioners,  varying  in  number 
from  two  to  thirty-two,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  county,  whose  duty  it  was  to  seek  out 
the  "  indigent  "  pupils  in  their  respective  com- 
munities and  to  employ  a  teacher  for  these  pupils 

105 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

at  the  rate  of  three  and  a  half  to  four  cents  a 
pupil  for  each  day  they  were  in  actual  attend- 
ance. 

At  first  none  of  this  fund  could  be  used  for 
building  schoolhouses  or  for  equipment,  but  in 
1829  the  General  Assembly  passed  an  act  pro- 
viding that  ten  per  cent  of  the  allotment  could 
be  used  for  building  schoolhouses,  or  if  the  local 
community  should  pay  three-fifths  of  the  total 
cost  of  the  house,  $100  of  the  fund  could  be 
used  provided  the  patrons  should  raise  a  like 
amount.  In  this  case  the  school  was  to  be  free 
to  all. 

This  distribution  of  the  fund  was  kept  under 
the  direct  control  of  the  General  Assembly  from 
the  time  this  fund  was  established  to  the  Civil 
War.  The  fund  was  used  by  the  members  of 
the  Legislature  as  a  political  "  plaything." 
Primarily,  it  was  intended  for  the  education  of 
the  poor,  but  when  the  "  poor  "  were  reduced 
to  a  state  of  pauperism  by  taking  advantage  of 
it,  they  often  refused  to  send  their  children  to 
school,  though  one  was  provided  within  easy 
reach  of  them.     It  often  happened  that  there 

106 


STATE  SUPPORT  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

was  great  difficulty  in  spending  the  money 
and  the  commissioners  apologized  for  the  ac- 
cumulation of  a  surplus.  The  Legislature  then 
sought  other  ways  of  using  the  fund  and  ap- 
propriated it  to  higher  institutions  of  learning 
and  to  academies;  $15,000  annually  was  ap- 
propriated to  the  University  of  Virginia  from 
1818  to  the  Civil  War.  In  1824  the  General 
Assembly  appropriated  $180,000  to  the  debts 
incurred  on  the  buildings  of  the  University  of 
Virginia.  In  1842,  $1500  was  allowed  the 
Virginia  Military  Institute  at  Lexington. 
Seventeen  academies  in  various  parts  of  the 
state  received  appropriations  for  short  periods 
of  time.  From  time  to  time  Hampden-Sidney 
College  and  Emory  and  Henry  received  gifts 
by  the  Legislature  from  this  fund.  The  Medi- 
cal College  in  Richmond  received  $25,000  from 
this  fund  in  1850.  In  1861  the  income  from 
The  Literary  Fund  was  appropriated  to  the 
defence  of  the  state.  Much  of  the  fund  was 
invested  in  Confederate  bonds  and  other  un- 
certain paper,  which  resulted  in  a  loss  of  a  great 
part   of   the    fund.     Between    1810    and    1871 

107 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

$440,837  was  lost  by  bad  investments.  In 
1871  there  was  available  for  the  fund  $1,596,- 
069.1 

In  1910  the  fund  amounted  to  $2,308,300  and 
accumulated  at  the  rate  of  $80,000  a  year. 
The  average  rate  of  accumulation  is  $30,000 
a  year.  Before  1871,  when  the  public  school 
system  of  the  state  was  put  upon  a  permanent 
basis,  this  fund  was  the  only  means  available 
for  educational  purposes,  and,  as  the  above 
facts  indicate,  the  members  of  the  Legislature 
kept  it  in  their  own  control  and  used  it  often 
to  further  their  political  interests,  the  success 
of  a  lawmaker  depending  largely  upon  the 
amount  of  "  free  money "  he  could  extract 
from  the  state  for  use  in  his  district.  The 
Literary  Fund  was  one  of  the  available  sources 
for  that  purpose. 

Despite  all  this,  the  fund  provided  instruc- 
tion for  many  children  throughout  Virginia, 
though  it  took  almost  half  a  century  to  get  the 
people  to  recognize  the  system  as  an  effective 
method  for  the   support  of  public  education. 

1  See  School  Report,  1871,  p.  198. 
108 


STATE  SUPPORT  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

In  1851,  65,370  poor  white  children  attended 
school,  31,486  of  whom  were  in  actual  daily 
attendance  fifty -four  days  a  year,  at  a  cost  of 
four  cents  a  day.  In  1859  the  attendance  was 
54,232  for  fifty-nine  days,  at  a  varying  cost  of 
from  two  to  six  cents  per  day.1  The  total 
amount  spent  that  year  was  $165,530.2 

Schoolroom  Activities.  —  The  following  ex- 
cerpts from  a  description  of  an  "  Old  Field  " 
school  by  Professor  Edward  S.  Joynes  give  an 
interesting  picture  of  the  activities  of  an  ele- 
mentary school  in  Accomac  County  in  1847. 

The  Building.  "But  at  intervals,  as  I  have  said,  I 
went  to  what  was  often  called  at  that  time,  the  'old 
field'  school.  This  name  was  doubtless  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  neighborhood  school  house  was  usually  built 
on  some  piece  of  land  which,  left  out  as  an  'old  field,' 
now  exhausted  and  usually  growing  up  in  small  trees,  was 
of  little  pecuniary  value,  and  at  the  same  time  furnished 
a  grateful  shade.  In  this  case,  however,  the  school  house 
stood  in  a  grove  of  fine  old  oaks,  near  the  roadside,  and 
only  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  county  town,  or  court 
house;  hence  it  was  a  better  structure  and  style  than 
was  usual  in  the  country.  It  was  built  of  boards  not  logs. 
It  had  a  great  open  fire  place,  for  wood  of  course.     There 

1  Report  of  Second  Auditor,  1851,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  33. 

2  In  the  year  1855  the  total  cost  per  child  was  $2.16. 

109 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

were  benches,  with  backs  and  without  backs.  Around 
the  wall  were  sloping  and  planed  plank  boards,  which 
served  as  a  desk  on  which  we  wrote ;  but  no  one  had  the 
privilege  of  occupying  permanently  a  seat  at  the  desk. 
The  teacher  sat  in  a  big  armed  chair.  The  classes,  as 
they  were  called,  came  and  stood  up  before  him  while 
they  recited ;  and  here,  too,  was  the  awful  spot  at  which 
'discipline'  was  administered. 

Gradation.  "Of  gradation  there  was  no  thought. 
Each  boy  and  girl  recited,  either  alone  or  in  class,  as  his 
or  her  condition  required.  School  was  from  nine  to 
twelve,  and  in  winter  from  one  to  four ;  in  summer  from 
two  to  five.  There  was  no  regular  school  term.  There 
was  always  school  when  there  was  a  teacher;  and  as  in 
those  days  a  teacher  usually  meant  anybody  who  could 
find  nothing  else  to  do,  it  usually  continued,  with  some- 
what irregular  intervals,  all  the  year  round.  Attendance 
was,  of  course,  conditioned  more  or  less  by  the  necessi- 
ties of  farm  work  at  home ;  but  that  made  no  difference. 
Each  fellow,  on  returning,  entered  just  where  he  could. 

Discipline.  "In  this  school  house  prevailed  a  certain 
rude  and  severe,  yet  natural  and  wholesome  discipline. 
Learning  lessons  aloud  —  a  habit  contracted  before  by 
many  —  was  strictly  forbidden,  as  was  all  whispering  or 
talking  or  prompting.  Suum  cuique  —  every  one  for  him- 
self—  was  the  rule  which  I  think  honestly  prevailed. 
Telling  was  shameful,  even  if  one  had  to  bear  another's 
punishment.  Outside  of  *  keeping  quiet'  and  'behav- 
ing,' we  had  a  good  deal  of  liberty.  A  big  bucket  of 
water,  with  a  dipper,  was  on  a  stand :  to  go  for  water 
some  distance  from  the  school  house,  was  the  privilege 

110 


STATE  SUPPORT  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

of  that  one  of  the  big  boys  who  had  said  his  lessons  best. 
Of  'rewards'  there  were  none.  Of  punishments  I  re- 
member but  one  —  the  tingle  of  which  I  can  still  feel  on 
my  back ;  I  got  it  almost  every  day.  —  The  punishment 
was  administered  not  only  for  misbehavior,  but  for  per- 
sistent defect  in  lessons.  A  ruler,  a  horse  whip,  or  a 
leather  strap  (under  different  teachers)  served  equally 
well  for  this  benign  function.  We  got  used  to  it,  expected 
it,  craved  it ;  a  boy  who  flinched  was  despised. 

The  Curriculum  and  Method  of  Teaching.  "Our  tasks 
were  set  in  the  book,  and  we  '  said  them '  from  the  book, 
and,  usually,  word  for  word.  Often  the  questions  were 
at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  which  saved  trouble  to  both 
scholars  and  teacher.  We  wrote  our  copies  over  and  over ; 
we  '  ciphered '  till  we  '  got  the  answer  * ;  —  no  questions 
were  asked.  If,  after  due  trial,  we  could  not  get  the 
answer,  we  were  thrashed,  and,  after  brief  explanation, 
we  tried  again.  In  this  way,  I  '  ciphered  '  through  Pike's 
and  other  arithmetics.  In  grammar  the  rule  was  :  Com- 
mit the  big  print  the  first  time;  on  review  the  big  and 
little  print,  verbatim.  So  I  went  through  Smith's  English 
Grammar  on  the  'productive  plan'  (what  it  'produced' 
in  me  Heaven  only  knows)  and,  later,  Rosses'  Latin 
Grammar.     Almost  all  lesson-getting  was  by  heart. 

"  We  studied  but  few  subjects  —  literally  the  three  R's, 
but  these  we  studied  thoroughly.  We  read  every  day 
from  Marshall's  Life  of  Washington.  We  wrote  day 
after  day,  and  year  after  year,  till  good  penmanship  was 
the  rule  among  us.  Spelling  was  our  specialty  and  our 
pride.  Not  only  did  each  class  spell  every  day  but  every 
morning,  before  dismissal,  the  whole  school  was  lined  up 

111 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

for  a  general  *  spell';  and  to  be  at  the  'head'  of  the 
class  was  the  most  coveted  honor.  And  we  spelled  not 
only  through  the  spelling  books,  but  through  the  diction- 
ary —  alphabetically,  every  word  —  and  then  reviewed 
it  with  the  definitions  !  —  How  I  ever  learned  to  read  it 
would  be  impossible,  in  the  light  of  modern  *  methods,' 
to  explain.  I  began  with  ab,  eb,  etc.  —  We  used  Olney's 
Geography;  we  got  the  text  book  by  heart.  —  Of  the 
philosophy  of  geography  and  of  physical  geography,  as 
now  taught,  we  knew  nothing.  But  what  we  did  learn 
we  learned  so  thoroughly,  and  reviewed  so  often,  that 
when  I  was  ten  years  old  there  was  hardly  an  important 
town,  seaport,  or  waterway  in  the  world  that  I  did  not 
know,  by  name  and  location  at  least.  This,  I  now  see 
was  a  very  slender  and  superficial  kind  of  knowledge; 
but,  such  as  it  was,  it  was  positive  and  it  was  accurate. 
We  doubtless  had  some  history  also  of  an  elementary  sort, 
but  I  cannot  now  recall  it.  If  we  did  we  learned  and 
recited  it  by  rote,  and  were  required  as  in  every  other 
study  to  know,  and  to  '  say '  exactly  what  was  in  the  book. 
Play  Time.  "One  hour  in  winter,  and  two  in  summer 
was  playtime  indeed.  The  town  boys  went  home  to 
dinner ;  the  countrymen  —  boys  and  girls  —  had  the 
house  and  grounds  to  ourselves.  And  play  we  did,  in- 
doors and  out,  according  to  weather  or  inclination.  There 
was  no  wall  or  fence  to  separate  the  boys  and  the  girls. 
We  played  as  we  chose  separately  or  together.  Kissing 
games  were  popular  but  as  the  kisses  were  always  im- 
posed as  a  forfeit  of  course  they  were  not  enjoyed  !  The 
supreme  penalty  was  to  kiss  all  the  girls  in  school;  and 
then  I  always  began  with  the  ugliest  and  closed  with  the 

112 


STATE  SUPPORT  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

prettiest,  but  more  usually,  it  was  to  kiss  the  girl  you 
love  best  —  and  who  could  refuse  so  pleasing  a  function  ! 
We  fought,  of  course,  now  and  then  and  'Cat'  and 
'town  ball'  and  'Sally'  (a  beautiful  game  that  I  have 
never  seen  since)  we  often  played.  We  cultivated  the 
germ  that  has  grown  into  modern  'athletics.'  We  had 
our  fun,  and  we  got  our  rest,  and  were  ready  for  the 
afternoon  work.  The  horrible  exaction  of  lessons  to  be 
got  out  of  school  was  so  far  as  I  can  remember  quite 
unknown. 

The  Walk  Home  in  the  Evening.  "After  school  came 
the  walk  home,  often  the  pleasantest  part  of  the  day. 
Usually  we  came  singly,  but  we  left  in  groups.  Along 
my  road  went  a  half  a  dozen  or  more  boys  and  girls 
altogether  for  a  time  and  then  gradually,  one  after  an- 
other dropped  out  until  I  who  lived  farthest  of  all  was 
left  to  walk  or  usually  to  run,  the  last  mile  alone.  Oh  ! 
those  delightful  home  walks  in  summer !  We  lingered 
slowly,  'creeping  like  snails.'  We  played  marbles  or 
'tag'  in  the  road;  we  picked  blackberries  from  the 
fence  corners;  we  posted  sentinels  and  climbed  apple 
trees  (I  was  caught  in  one  by  an  irate  farmer  who  took 
his  seat  on  the  tree  root  and  kept  me  there  till  near  night 
fall  and  then  dismissed  me  with  my  pail  full  of  the  best. 
—  That  was  his  joke  !)  We  walked  aside  with  the  girls, 
talking  foolishness  that  seemed  the  sweetest  wisdom. 
More  than  one  of  these  companions,  before  I  was  twelve 
years  old,  I  had  loved  ('not  wisely  but  too  well')  — 
grandmothers  are  now  dead,  but  not  forgotten  !  Yet 
none  of  us  were  ever  the  worse  for  these  sweet  dreams  and 
loving  words." 

i  113 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

The  Administration  of  Elementary  Schools.  — 
The  president  and  directors  of  The  Literary 
Fund,  composed  of  the  governor,  lieutenant 
governor,  attorney-general,  and  the  president 
of  the  court  of  appeals,  represented  the  state 
authority  in  control  of  public  education  in 
Virginia  from  1846  to  1868.  Their  function 
extended  no  further  than  the  matter  of  investing 
The  Literary  Fund  and  distributing  it  to  the 
various  counties  according  to  the  population. 
This  Board  had  no  power  to  devise  ways  and 
means  for  the  encouragement  of  public  education 
among  the  people  of  the  state.  It  had  no  au- 
thority to  license  teachers  or  supervise  the  in- 
struction. It  had  no  power  to  provide  school 
buildings  and  equipment.  These  matters  were 
left  entirely  to  the  local  commissioners,  who  were 
appointed  by  the  County  Courts.  The  number 
of  these  was  left  entirely  to  the  Court's  dis- 
cretion.1 The  idea  was  to  have  a  commissioner 
in  every  large  community.  He  was  to  find  the 
number  of  "  indigent  "  children  in  the  com- 
munity and  then  employ  a  teacher.     This  was 

1  The  number  ranges  from  32  in  Augusta  to  2  in  Warwick  County. 

114 


STATE  SUPPORT  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

one  of  the  difficult  tasks  for  the  commissioner. 
Oftentimes  he  could  find  no  one  who  would 
agree  to  teach  the  children  at  the  meagre  salary 
he  could  offer.  He  would  then  find  tuition  for 
the  "  indigent  "  children  in  a  school,  known  as 
a  "  pay  school,"  already  established  by  some 
teacher.  Oftentimes  these  teachers  would  re- 
fuse to  admit  the  poor  children  to  their  classes. 
It  was  also  the  commissioner's  duty  to  visit 
the  schools  where  the  "  poor "  children  were 
taught.  Everything  depended  upon  the  school 
commissioner.  This  official  was  likely  to  be  a 
man  with  little  or  no  idea  of  what  good  school 
work  should  be.  In  some  instances  there  is 
evidence  that  they  were  very  negligent  of  even 
the  meagre  duties  imposed  by  law.  The  people 
for  whom  the  school  existed  had  a  strong  prej- 
udice against  being  looked  upon  as  paupers, 
and  for  that  reason  refused  to  send  their  chil- 
dren to  these  schools,  after  persistent  efforts 
on  the  part  of  the  commissioners. 

Excerpts  from  the  Reports  of  the  County  Com- 
missioners.1    The  following  excerpts  from  the 

1  See  Second  Auditor's  Report  for  the  Year  1855-56. 
115 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

reports  of  the  commissioners  of  the  various 
counties  of  the  state  will  indicate  the  ineffec- 
tiveness of  the  system  at  the  close  of  the 
period  under  discussion: 

"Many  prejudices  exist  against  the  system  owing  to  a 
false  pride  and  children  grow  up  in  ignorance  rather  than 
be  educated  from  public  funds."  Clarke  County  Com- 
missioners. 

"The  main  defects  of  the  system  are  :  lack  of  qualified 
teachers  and  prejudice  among  the  people  as  *  poor  schools.' " 
Augusta  County,  Supt.  Jno.  Imboden. 

"We  recommend  an  increase  per  diem.  Teachers  of 
the  higher  grade,  particularly  classical  teachers,  are  not 
willing  to  instruct  indigent  children  for  the  present  com- 
pensation, and  other  persons  who  are  competent  to  give 
elementary  instruction  are  debarred  for  the  same  reason." 
Brunswick  County  Commissioners. 

"320  indigent  children  were  instructed  in  the  County. 
These  children  are  entered  in  higher  schools  where  higher 
teachers  are  paid  the  allowance  and  they  consider  it  an 
act  of  charity  to  accept  these  children.  Two  dollars  per 
child  will  not  educate  children  in  this  county.  Without 
an  increase  of  funds  the  greater  number  of  children 
must  grow  up  in  ignorance."  Charlotte  County  Com- 
missioners. 

"There  is  a  great  difficulty  to  get  people  to  act  as 
school  commissioners.  When  they  do  undertake  the 
duties,  they  are  not  half  attended  to."  Franklin  County 
Commissioners. 

116 


STATE  SUPPORT  OF  PUBLIC   EDUCATION 

"Commissioners  are  of  the  opinion  that  there  should 
be  some  stated  plan  specially  adopted  for  furnishing  the 
common  schools  with  some  uniform  system  of  school 
books  and  at  the  lowest  possible  rates.  The  age  limit 
should  be  from  8  to  18  instead  of  6  to  16."  Frederick 
County  Commissioners. 

"There  are  no  schools  especially  established  by  the 
commissioners,  but  several  are  confined  to  indigent  chil- 
dren, and  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  difference  in 
the  progress  of  indigent  and  other  children.* *  Fluvanna 
County  Commissioners. 

"Many  teachers  of  the  county  will  not  admit  children 
at  the  rate  set  by  law.  There  is  a  large  balance  on  hand 
that  we  cannot  use."     Henrico  County  Commissioners. 

"Considerable  difficulty  in  obtaining  teachers.  We 
recommend  an  increase  of  rate  to  five  cents.  Think 
teacher  could  then  be  induced  to  take  indigent  children." 
Isle  of  Wight  County  Commissioners. 

"Per  diem  should  be  raised  to  five  cents.  Six  of  the 
commissioners  could  not  establish  schools.  The  com- 
missioners will  endeavor  to  provide  against  so  large  a  sur- 
plus next  year.  Indigent  children  are  decreasing  in  the 
county  in  consequence  of  increase  of  wealth  and  the  high 
price  of  labor.  They  have  lost  the  ridiculous  pride  which 
has  heretofore  characterized  them  in  refusing  to  go  to 
school  under  the  charge  of  the  state."  King  William 
County  Commissioners. 

"Commissioners  do  not  visit  the  schools.  Teachers 
are  not  selected  by  them.  They  have  to  send  the  poor 
children  to  schools  already  established."  Matthews 
County  Commissioners. 

117 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

"Different  neighborhoods  in  the  county  are  supplied 
with  schools,  therefore  it  is  unnecessary  to  establish 
schools.  Funds  not  deemed  sufficient  to  educate  all  the 
poor  children.  Board  selects  females  and  such  others  as 
are  most  needed."     Madison  County  Commissioner. 

"Commissioners  have  visited  schools  and  find  the 
pupils  advancing.  The  amount  unexpended  is  consider- 
able, due  to  the  increase  of  capitation  tax."  Montgomery 
County  Commissioner. 

"Commissioners  remiss  in  their  duty.  Rule  passed 
that  any  commissioner  who  does  not  make  report  as  re- 
quired will  forfeit  his  quota."  New  Kent  County  Com- 
missioners. 

"Some  of  the  commissioners  have  not  attended  a 
board  meeting  for  two  years.  Recommend  that  com- 
missioners be  paid  for  their  time  in  attending  their  duties." 
Pittsylvania  County  Commissioners. 

"The  parents  of  many  indigent  children  cannot  be 
prevailed  upon  to  send  their  children  to  the  schools." 
Rappahannock  County  Commissioner. 

"Commissioners  fail  to  discharge  their  duty.  Recom- 
mend that  teachers  be  not  employed  who  cannot  file  a 
certificate  from  the  Superintendent."  Smythe  County 
Commissioners . 

"Greatest  difficulty  in  inducing  parents  or  guardian 
to  send  their  children  to  school  regularly."  Spottsylvania 
County  Commissioners. 

"Board  allowance  teaches  300  poor  children.  Volun- 
tary contributions  are  made.  This  permits  such  salaries 
as  will  secure  good  teachers. 

"$1800  raised  to  build  a  school  house  large  and  beau- 

118 


STATE  SUPPORT  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

tiful.  I  reckon  it  may  be  regarded  as  the  banner  dis- 
trict of  the  State.  Teachers  have  a  county  organization."  1 
Norfolk  County  Commissioners. 

"Schools  well  conducted.  Poor  children  make  as 
much  progress  as  the  others.  No  teachers  employed 
without  being  examined."  Washington  County  Com- 
missioners. 

From  the  foregoing  excerpts  from  the  reports 
of  the  Second  Auditor,  who  was  the  only  state 
supervising  officer  and  the  custodian  of  the  in- 
come from  The  Literary  Fund,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  main  difficulties  with  the  system  were : 
(1)  insufficiency  of  funds  to  employ  competent 
teachers;  (2)  no  school  buildings  and  other 
equipment,  no  means  available  for  that  purpose  ; 
(3)  strong  prejudice  against  the  idea  of  placing 
their  children  under  the  charge  of  the  state 
for  education;  and  (4)  a  generally  careless  atti- 
tude toward  the  system  on  the  part  of  the  com- 
missioners. Some  of  these  difficulties  lie  so 
deep  in  the  social  fabric  as  to  require  years  of 
time  and  effort  to  overcome.  In  the  light  of 
modern  ideas  concerning  educational  affairs, 
it  seems  ridiculous  that  the  commissioners  felt 

1  This  was  probably  the  first  county  organization  of  teachers  in  the  state. 

119 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

called  upon  in  their  reports  to  apologize  for  not 
being  able  to  spend  the  amounts  allotted.  In 
September,  1855,  the  Second  Auditor  reported 
undrawn  quotas  $10,381.11  and  undrawn  capi- 
tation tax  $13,929.02. 

In  connection  with  this  law  providing  schools 
for  the  poor,  special  acts  give  the  privilege  to 
certain  counties  by  vote  to  establish  a  system  of 
free  schools,  by  which  a  special  tax  was  levied 
and  a  superintendent  and  a  board  were  elected 
by  the  people  for  the  conduct  of  the  schools. 
This  type  of  school  was  known  as  District  Free 
School,  and  was  intended  for  all  children,  rich 
and  poor  alike.  The  following  counties  oper- 
ated systems  of  free  schools  under  special  acts: 
Elizabeth  City,  Henry,  King  George,  North- 
ampton, Norfolk,  Princess  Anne,  Washington, 
Albemarle,  and  Augusta,  together  with  the  cities 
of  Lynchburg,  Petersburg,  and  Norfolk.  Nor- 
folk County  was  the  only  one  operating  under 
this  law  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War. 
These  counties  received  their  quotas  from  The 
Literary  Fund  in  addition  to  the  local  tax  levies 
for  educational  purposes.     This  was  the  period 

120 


STATE  SUPPORT  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

of  industrial  development  in  America,  when 
railroads  were  being  built  everywhere  and  the 
enthusiasm  for  this  sort  of  improvement  eclipsed 
the  other  interests  of  the  state  and  the  atten- 
tion of  the  people  was  turned  away  from  educa- 
tional matters.  The  following  memorials  to 
the  directors  of  The  Literary  Fund  by  the  school 
commissioners  of  Hanover  and  Matthews 
County  are  particularly  interesting  in  this  con- 
nection: 

An  Appeal  for  Better  Schools.    "The  Literary  Fund  is 
failing  of  its  purpose  with  respect  to  primary  schools. 

1.  Insufficiency  of  compensation  (4  cents  per  diem) 
fixed  by  law  to  secure  services  of  teachers  well  qualified 
for  this  purpose. 

2.  The  competent  teachers  will  not  take  poor  children. " 

The  memorial  closes  with  this  significant 
argument : 

While  so  much  of  the  talents  and  energies  of  the 
legislators,  so  much  of  the  pecuniary  resources  of  the 
state  is  directed  to  clearing  out  obstructions  from  exist- 
ing channels  for  getting  produce  to  market;  while  hills 
are  being  cut  down,  and  valleys  being  filled  up  in  the  con- 
struction of  new  channels  for  the  commendable  purpose 
of  developing  the  latent  resources  of  the  Commonwealth 
and  bringing  into  active  and  profitable  use  materials  now 

121 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

utterly  worthless,  may  we  not  indulge  the  hope,  that  the 
favorable  opportunity  for  doing  something  for  the  cause 
of  general  education  will  not  be  permitted  to  pass  by  un- 
improved: but  rather  may  we  not  flatter  ourselves  that 
as  far  as  practicable  the  obstructions  will  be  removed  out 
of  the  way  of  enlightening  the  dark  and  uninformed  of 
the  poor  of  our  state.  That  some  plan  will  be  devised 
which  will  operate  as  a  permanent  channel  for  communi- 
cating information  to  that  large  class  of  our  citizens 
which  will  be  sensibly  felt  in  perpetuating  our  free  insti- 
tutions by  developing  the  latent  resources  of  genius  now 
covered  with  a  heavy  mass  of  rubbish,  converting  igno- 
rance into  intelligence,  vice  into  virtue,  idleness  into 
industry,  and  want  and  misery  into  happiness  and  use- 
fulness. 

Signed  by  order  of  Board 

Henry  Robinson,    Pres. 
James  T.  Sutton,  SecH. 
Commissioners  of  Hanover  County.     1836. 

The  Commissioners  with  much  deference  would  sug- 
gest that  a  part  of  the  enormous  sums  annually  expended 
in  abortive  schemes  of  internal  improvement  might  be 
more  successfully  directed  to  the  objects  of  education 
and  with  absolute  certainty  of  success.  This  is  the  begin- 
ning place.  The  moral  power  and  prosperity  of  the 
people  of  Virginia  should  have  their  foundation  laid  in 
enlightening  the  minds  of  all,  by  providing  the  means  of 
a  general  plan  of  education.  Other  improvements  are 
of  a  secondary  character  and  will  follow  as  a  matter  of 
course. 

School  Commissioners  of  Matthews  County.     1830. 


STATE  SUPPORT  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

Summary.  —  It  will  be  clearly  seen  that  the 
system  of  public  education  in  the  state  was  not 
adequate:  (1)  the  financial  support  was  far 
short  of  the  needs,  as  recognized  by  some  of 
the  leaders;  (2)  there  was  no  effective  system 
of  administration  and  supervision;  (3)  public 
opinion  as  to  the  state's  taking  control  of  pub- 
lic education  had  not  definitely  crystallized; 
(4)  the  improvement  of  the  physical  aspects 
of  the  state,  such  as  the  building  of  railroads, 
canals,  and  forms  of  navigation,  were  receiving 
the  attention  of  the  people  and  were  regarded 
as  the  prime  function  of  government.  As  a 
consequence,  primary  education  was  neglected. 


123 


CHAPTER   VIII 

PERIOD    OF   THE   ACADEMIES 

Academies  and  Classical  Schools.  —  Before 
1800,  there  were  as  many  as  twenty-five  acade- 
mies in  Virginia.  They  were  generally  known 
as  "  Classical  Schools."  The  term  "  Academy  " 
came  a  little  later  when  the  sciences  were  be- 
coming popular  and  some  of  them  were  taught 
in  these  secondary  schools.  This  type  of  school 
had  arisen  in  New  England  and  New  York 
State.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century  they  had  multiplied  very  rapidly 
through  the  other  sections  of  the  country,  not- 
ably in  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  other  southern 
states.  The  graduates  of  Princeton  and  Yale 
colleges  came  down  into  Virginia  and  estab- 
lished these  schools  in  sections  of  the  state 
where    the     strongest     church     centres     were. 

124 


PERIOD    OF  THE  ACADEMIES 

Some    of    these    early    academies    became    the 
nuclei  of  the  leading  colleges  in  Virginia.1 

Prince  Edward  Academy  (1775)  later  be- 
came Hampden-Sidney  College.  Liberty  Hall 
Academy  (1776)  was  the  beginning  of  Wash- 
ington College,  now  Washington  and  Lee 
University,  at  Lexington.  Fredericksburg 
Academy  (1783)  later  became  the  charity 
school  there  (1796)  and  still  later  Freder- 
icksburg College.  Shepherdstown  Academy 
(1793),  Hoge  Classical  School  (1805),  was  the 
nucleus  of  Shepherdstown  College  (now  a  state 
normal  school  in  West  Virginia).  Albemarle 
Academy  (1803),  later  Central  College  (1818), 
became  the  University  of  Virginia.  Richmond 
Seminary  (1803)  developed  into  Richmond  Col- 
lege. Salem  Academy  (1826)  later  became 
Roanoke  College.  Monongahela  Academy 
(1814)  was  the  nucleus  for  West  Virginia 
University.  Marshall  Academy  (1838)  be- 
came  Marshall   College    (1858),   later   changed 

1  "  Upper  schools  were  established  in  all  the  Scotch-Irish  settlements, 
from  which  grew  colleges  in  an  early  period  in  Pennsylvania,  North  Caro- 
lina, Tennessee,  as  well  as  in  Virginia."  Washington  and  Lee  University 
Historical  Papers. 

125 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

to  a  state  normal  school  (1867)  at  Hunting- 
ton, West  Virginia.  Norfolk  Academy  (1788), 
Winchester  Academy  (1786),  Petersburg 
Academy  (1794),  Margaret  Academy  (1807), 
Staunton  Academy  (1810),  New  Market  Acad- 
emy (1817),  Concord  Academy  (1809),  Alex- 
andria Academy  (1785),  had  a  long  and  use- 
ful existence,  and  some  of  them  are  still  in 
a  flourishing  condition  as  private  preparatory 
schools  or  military  academies. 

Besides  these  academies,  there  grew  up  one 
or  more  of  these  schools  in  every  county  of 
the  state.  From  1800  to  1860,  there  were 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  of  these  schools 
incorporated  by  the  General  Assembly,  and 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  many  others  of  less  signifi- 
cance in  operation  did  not  apply  for  incorpo- 
ration. 

The  following  table  shows  the  growth  of 
academies  from  the  Revolutionary  War  to 
the  close  of  the  Civil  War.  It  should  be  noted 
that  about  twenty  of  these  would  fall  within 
the  territory  of  the  present  state  of  West  Vir- 
ginia.    It  will  be  noted  that  the  period  from 

126 


PERIOD  OF  THE  ACADEMIES 

1820  to  1860  was  the  most  active  in  establish- 
ing this  type  of  school.     This  corresponds  to 


Male 

Female 

Co-educational 

Total 

1776-1800 

21 

0 

0 

21 

1800-1820 

32 

6 

1 

39 

1820-1840 

33 

15 

7 

55 

1840-1860 

40 

48 

12 

100 

1860-1870 

1 

2 

0 

3 

127 

71 

20 

218 

the  educational  revival  in  America  from  the 
30's  to  the  50's.  The  people  of  Virginia  were 
as  much  interested  in  the  education  of  girls  as 
boys.  The  academy  was  the  type  of  school 
that  spread  through  Virginia  and  served  as 
the  means  of  education  for  the  majority  of  the 
children  of  the  state.  These  schools,  while  they 
taught  the  classics,  higher  mathematics,  and 
the  sciences  (physics,  chemistry,  and  botany), 
also  gave  instruction  in  the  elementary  subjects, 
which  was  a  necessary  preparation  for  this 
secondary  instruction.  The  state  had  no  other 
connection  with  these  academies  than  the  mat- 
ter of  chartering  them  or  passing  acts  enab- 
ling them  to  conduct  lotteries  for  the  purpose 

127 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

of  raising  funds  to  erect  buildings  or  to  add 
to  their  endowment.1  It  gave  no  money  for 
their  support  except  to  the  few  (seventeen) 
that  received  a  meagre  appropriation  from  The 
Literary  Fund  at  different  times.  The  more 
substantial  of  them  were  endowed  and  con- 
trolled by  a  board  of  trustees  which  was  a 
self -perpetuating  body.  The  main  means  of 
support  was  by  tuition  fees  paid  by  the 
students. 

Public  Sentiment  for  Popular  Education.  — 
From  the  30's  to  the  50's,  a  great  wave  of  dis- 
cussion arose  as  to  the  best  system  of  education 
for  the  state.  The  churches  were  particularly 
interested  in  the  fostering  of  secondary  and 
higher  education.  They  were  demanding  that  the 
state  subsidize  the  institution  they  had  already 
established.  There  was  a  strong  feeling  among 
a  class  that  the  state  should  adopt  a  complete 
system  of  education  under  state  control. 
Charles  Fenton  Mercer,  in  1817,  drew  up  and 


1  From  1784  to  1817,  acts  authorizing  the  raising  of  money  by  means 
of  lotteries,  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  academies,  were 
passed  by  the  Legislature. 

128 


PERIOD  OF  THE  ACADEMIES 

presented  to  the  Legislature  a  bill  providing 
for  a  Board  of  Public  Instruction,  with  a  perma- 
nent secretary,  for  a  system  of  primary  schools 
free  to  all  white  children ;  for  a  system  of  acade- 
mies (three  of  these  for  girls) ;  and  for  colleges 
and  a  university.  This  bill  passed  the  House 
but  failed  of  passage  in  the  Senate.  The  acade- 
mies had  proved  so  well  their  efficiency  that 
almost  all  proposed  legislation  regarding  educa- 
tional matters  included  this  type  of  school. 
There  were  some  people  who  thought  "  nothing 
worthy  could  come  from  statutes  in  matters 
of  education."  One  man  went  so  far  as  to 
argue  that  The  Literary  Fund  should  be 
abolished  as  a      public  nuisance." 

The  people  were  deeply  concerned  with  ad- 
justments and  readjustments.  There  was  a 
strong  prejudice  against  old  forms  and  customs. 
They  feared  taxation  and  meagre  publicity 
and  central  control  of  public  matters.  Hence, 
public  education  lagged  in  such  a  spirit  and  the 
idea  of  complete  local  control  in  matters  of 
education  prevailed.  In  such  an  atmosphere, 
academies  survived  as  the  best  type  of  educa- 
k  129 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

tion  in  Virginia.  Education  conventions  were 
held  at  Richmond  and  at  Clarksburg  (now  in 
West  Virginia),  in  1841,  each  offering  sugges- 
tions for  a  more  satisfactory  system  of  educa- 
tion. 

Plans  Submitted.  —  The  House  Committee, 
Directors  of  The  Literary  Fund,  Henry  Ruffner, 
and  Superintendent  Smith  of  V.M.I,  all  sub- 
mitted plans  for  a  better  system  of  education 
for  the  state.  In  these  reports,  one  finds  as 
suggestions  all  the  characteristic  aspects  of 
modern  public  education.  Some  of  them  are : 
(1)  support  of  colleges,  (2)  eight  months' 
session  for  the  common  schools,  (3)  establish- 
ment of  normal  schools,  (4)  schools  for  girls,  (5) 
pensions  for  teachers,  (6)  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, (7)  state  superintendent  of  schools,  (8) 
school  journals,  (9)  division  superintendents, 
(10)  school  libraries,  and  (11)  better  school- 
houses.  But  nothing  came  of  all  this  full 
and  abundant  wisdom.  The  academies  went 
on  furnishing,  for  the  most  part,  the  training 
for  the  boys  and  girls  of  Virginia  until  1869, 
when  the  present  school  system  was  inaugurated. 

130 


PERIOD  OF  THE  ACADEMIES 

In  1860  there  were  13,204  pupils  attending 
academies  in  Virginia,  with  720  teachers.1  Our 
present  system  of  high  schools  in  the  state 
grew  by  gradual  stages  out  of  these  academies 
so  well  distributed  over  the  state.2 

The  Curriculum  of  These  Academies. — The 
curriculum  for  these  academies  in  the  higher 
departments  was  largely  the  old  traditional 
subjects,  Latin,  Greek,  mathematics,  and 
rhetoric.  In  addition  to  these,  such  sciences 
as  physics  and  chemistry,  and  sometimes  bot- 
any, were  taught;  and  bookkeeping  was  often 
comprised  in  the  course.  In  the  classical 
schools,  the  work  was  confined  more  to  the 
ancient  languages.  This  was  regarded  as  the 
preparation  for  college.  The  discipline  was 
usually  harsh  and  severe.  There  were  no 
short  cuts  or  easy  methods.  Three  typical 
cases  will  illustrate  how  school  work  proceeded 
in  some  of  these  old  academies,  some  of  which 
went  by  the  name  of  "  Old  Field  "  schools. 

1  U.  S.  Census  of  1860. 

2  At  the  opening  of  the  Civil  War,  Virginia,  east  of  the  Alleghany 
Mountains,  led  the  entire  fifteen  states  of  the  South  in  secondary  and 
higher  education.     U.  S.  Commissioner's  Report,  1890-91,  p.  882. 

131 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Beyond  the  Blue  Ridge  schools  are  very  scarce. 
About  this  time  (1776)  my  father  went  on  a  trading 
expedition  to  Baltimore  and  there  purchased  several 
convict  servants.  Among  these  was  a  youth  about 
18  or  20  named  John  Reardon  of  Ireland  but  reared 
in  London.  He  had  been  at  a  classical  school  and  had 
read  Latin  as  far  as  Vergil,  as  well  as  a  little  Greek 
Testament.  He  wrote  a  fair  hand  and  had  some  knowl- 
edge of  bookkeeping  but  had  never  been  accustomed  to 
labor.  The  young  fellow  it  was  thought  might  teach 
school  in  default  of  a  better,  and  accordingly  a  hut  of 
logs  was  erected  near  a  spring.  The  place  was  a  mile 
from  our  house  by  the  direct  path  along  the  creek,  whither 
I  trudged  along  every  day.  The  school  was  large  and 
some  of  the  scholars  were  nearly  grown.  It  consisted  of 
both  boys  and  girls.  The  custom  was  to  read  with  as 
loud  a  voice  as  we  could  while  getting  our  lessons  as  it 
was  called.  When  within  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  a  country 
school  one  might  hear,  like  a  distant  chime,  the  united 
voices  of  the  scholars.1 

Concord  Academy  was  Frederick  Coleman.  Coleman 
was  an  A.  M.  from  the  University  of  Virginia.  There 
can  never  be  such  a  school.  Every  man  for  himself,  — 
that  was  all.  Be  a  man,  be  a  gentleman  —  nothing  more. 
Obedience,  truthfulness,  —  these  were  the  only  virtues 
recognized,  —  obedience  to  Fred  Coleman.  His  wrath 
was  something  terrible,  a  tornado  in  its  irresistible  and 
undisciplined  fury.  Lying  and  cowardice  were  not  given 
for  they  were  impossible  at  Concord.     Fighting  was  not 

1 "  Life  of  Archibald  Alexander,"  pp.  10-14. 
132 


PERIOD   OF  THE  ACADEMIES 

prohibited;   only  it  must  be  a  fair  fight,  old  Fred  would 
see  to  that. 

This  was  a  school  with  absolutely  no  method,  no  hour 
was  appointed  for  any  of  the  classes.  Ben,  the  trusty 
servant,  who  equally  feared  and  worshipped  his  master, 
would  ring  the  bell  and  announce  the  class  at  any  hour. 
The  law  of  place  was  as  uncertain  as  that  of  time ;  classes 
would  meet  anywhere  without  law  or  method ;  in  disregard 
of  every  rule  of  order  or  decorum  was  laid  the  foundation 
of  that  scholarship  which  made  Concord  famous  among 
schools.  Coleman  held  that  the  first  books  of  Livy  con- 
tained all  Latinity,  and  all  the  glory  that  was  Greece  was 
to  be  found  in  the  "  Hecuba  "  of  Euripides.  .  .  .  Every 
line,  phrase  form,  idiom  was  made  a  center  of  citation. 
We  used  only  complete  texts  without  notes  at  Concord 
—  a  Latin  or  Greek  grammar  I  never  saw  there.  He 
was  a  massive  power  of  body  and  will.  Through  this 
power  he  dominated  all  his  boys  —  impressed  honesty 
upon  them  —  controlled  them  by  his  immense  will  power, 
moved  them  by  his  mighty  sympathy,  startled  them  into 
life  by  his  stentorian  voice,  and  molded  them  by  his 
dynamic  mind.  As  a  teacher  he  was  the  greatest  of  his 
age.     There  has  been  no  other  like  him.1 

"  When  I  was  about  eleven  years  old  I  was  transferred 
to  what  I  may  call  the  Latin  school.  This  was  a  private 
school,  taught  at  the  residence  of  the  teacher.  The 
school  was  held  in  an  outhouse,  which  in  all  its  appoint- 
ments was  as  plain  and  meager  as  the  other  —  (the  Old 
Field  school)  a  few  benches  —  no  wall  maps  or  black- 

1  The  Morrison  MS.,  Concord  Academy,  1835. 
133 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

boards  —  I  never  saw  either  of  these  until  I  was  sent  off 
from  home.  I  call  it  the  "Latin  school"  because  Latin 
with  some  Greek  was  mainly  taught  there.  The  teacher 
was  a  graduate  of  the  University  of  Doublin;  had  been 
classical  instructor  in  one  of  the  best  colleges  of  that  day, 
where  he  had  earned  a  high  reputation.  Spending  a 
vacation  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Virginia  he  had  met  and 
married  a  beautiful  and  refined  woman  who,  dying,  had 
left  him  two  lovely  daughters;  now,  in  his  old  age,  he 
had  settled  down  to  teach  a  school  for  boys.  I  wish  I 
could  give  more  of  his  personal  history,  for  he  was  a 
remarkable  man.  Yet  I  know  the  case  was  not  alto- 
gether exceptional,  for  I  have  heard  of  other  distin- 
guished scholars  teaching  at  that  day  in  equally  remote 
parts  of  the  south. 

Curriculum  and  Method.  "The  usual  advanced 
branches  of  that  day  were  taught  more  or  less  —  usually 
less ;  —  for  Latin  and  Greek  were  the  staple  of  the  school, 
and  in  these  alone  the  teacher  delighted.  And  he  made 
us  delight  in  them.  I  learned  to  love  Latin,  and  I  studied 
it  with  loving  zeal.  The  method  was  old-fashion ;  Gram- 
mar lessons  learned  by  heart;  paradigms  studied  so 
thoroughly  as  never  to  be  forgotten ;  parsing  and  weari- 
some detail,  with  infinite  repetition  but  with  absolute 
accuracy ;  and  reading,  reading,  reading  :  —  of  written 
exercises  I  never  so  much  as  heard.  My  teacher  was  one 
of  the  brightest  classical  scholars  I  have  ever  seen.  Large 
portions  of  the  text  —  the  poetry  especially  —  he  knew 
so  well  that  he  could  hear  our  lessons  without  a  book. 
As  we  recited  he  would  pace  across  the  room,  chewing 
his  great  quid  of  tobacco,  yet  watchful  of  every  word  or 

134 


PERIOD  OF  THE  ACADEMIES 

intonation  —  now  and  then  interpolating  brilliant  exposi- 
tion or  apt  renderings,  which  fired  us  with  interest  and 
emulation.  Here  I  read  Csesar,  Sallust,  Virgil  (the 
eclogues,  Georgics,  and  six  books  of  iEneid) ;  Cicero's 
Oration  against  Catiline  and  Verres;  and  Horace,  Odes 
and  Satires,  —  all  in  two  years,  —  and  I  read  them 
thoroughly,  understanding,  if  not  the  subject-matter,  at 
least  the  language.  —  As  I  rose  to  the  dignity  of  the  "  first 
Latin"  class,  we  were  left  to  do  as  much  Latin  as  we  could 
or  would,  and  I  remember  that,  at  last,  we  reached  an 
average  of  over  200  lines  per  day.  Of  what  else,  indeed, 
I  did  in  this  school  I  have  little  or  no  recollection;  but 
I  did  learn  Latin  —  to  know  Latin  and  to  love  Latin ;  — 
and  for  a  boy  of  twelve  to  learn  to  know  and  to  love  any 
one  great  and  good  thing,  is,  I  submit,  a  good  beginning 
of  education.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  my  country  school 
education  ended.  A  few  months  I  was  sent  to  a  famous 
Academy  at  Newark,  Delaware."  l 

Summary.  —  The  academies,  so  numerous  in 
Virginia  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  developed  out  of  the  old  classical 
schools,  known  in  some  sections  of  the  state 
as  the  "Parson's  Schools"  and  "Old  Field 
Schools  "  of  the  previous  century.  The  acad- 
emy of  this  later  period  came  to  represent  the 
coming  of  science,  as  a  part  of  the  college  and 

1  Journal  of  Education,  South  Carolina,  by  Edward  S.  Joynes. 
135 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

secondary  curricula.  Here  and  there  the  old 
classical  schools  persisted,  being  patronized  par- 
ticularly by  the  more  influential  and  aristocratic 
classes  and  by  those  intended  for  the  clergy. 
The  teaching  of  the  sciences  came  with  the 
movement  that  demanded  a  more  practical 
type  of  training,  and  were  patronized  and 
maintained  by  the  growing  influence  of  the 
middle  class,  and  the  wide-spread  movement  of 
the  industrial,  economic,  and  new  political  life 
of  the  state.  This  type  of  education  persisted 
so  long  in  Virginia  because  of  the  transition  in 
political  ideals,  represented  by  Jefferson's  po- 
litical philosophy  of  local  self-government,  and 
the  fear  of  centralized  power  in  matters  of 
state  control.  The  evolution  of  American  educa- 
tion has  gone  along  with  the  idea  of  a  certain 
degree  of  centralized  power.  The  efficiency 
of  the  American  system  of  education  depends 
upon  :  (1)  the  fundamental  democratic  principle 
of  equal  opportunity  for  all;  and  (2)  the  pro- 
vision for  state  support  and  supervision  of 
schools. 


136 


CHAPTER  IX 

HIGHER    EDUCATION    IN    VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

Dissenters  in  Virginia.  —  About  the  time  of 
the  Revolutionary  War,  streams  of  migration 
from  Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and 
New  York  flowed  into  Virginia.  These  immi- 
grants settled  in  various  parts  of  the  state, 
particularly  in  the  Piedmont  and  the  upper 
regions  of  the  James  River  and  in  the  Shenan- 
doah Valley,  and  represented  various  religious 
denominations,  such  as  Presbyterians,  Bap- 
tists, Methodists,  Quakers,  Lutherans,  German 
Baptists,1  and  Mennonites,  and  were  generally 
known  among  the  other  Virginia  settlers  as 
"dissenters."  They  were  a  sturdy  people  and 
had  learned  to  differ  from  the  old  and  estab- 
lished forms  of  worship  in  England  and  other 
sections  of  Europe,  and  carried  with  them  into 

1  In  1908,  the  General  Conference  changed  the  name  to  "Church  of 
the  Brethren." 

137 


i 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

this  new  country  the  spirit  of  the  Reformation, 
which  had  been  the  cause  of  so  much  controversy 
in  Europe.  They  came  into  clash  with  the  es- 
tablished church  of  England  so  firmly  estab- 
lished in  Virginia.  The  outcome  of  the  political 
conflict  ending  with  the  Revolutionary  War 
gave  the  "  dissenters  "  the  advantage,  and  other 
influences  in  the  subsequent  history  of  the  state 
brought  them  distinctly  into  the  ascendency. 

By  the  close  of  the  war  they  had  established 
themselves  into  strong  centres  of  population 
and  had  begun  to  organize  themselves  in  accord- 
ance with  their  own  ideals  of  religious,  social, 
educational,  and  political  standards.  The  Pres- 
byterians were  probably  the  most  active  in 
taking  part  in  moulding  the  politics  of  the  state. 
They  were  of  the  Scotch-Irish  stock  and  held  to 
their  proverbial  thirst  for  knowledge.  They 
had  a  reverence  for  learning,  and  schools  soon 
and  sacredly  followed  upon  their  churches. 
The  German  Baptists  and  Mennonites  were 
slow  to  provide  education  or  to  take  an  active 
part  in  that  provided  by  the  state  a  little  later. 
The   Baptists,   Methodists,   Presbyterians,  and 

138 


HIGHER    EDUCATION    IN    VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

Lutherans  each  in  their  turn  established  col- 
leges, and  for  a  long  period  (1775  to  1860)  these 
institutions  provided  the  most  effective  system 
of  higher  education  in  Virginia. 

We  shall  next  trace  the  development  of  these 
influential  church  schools  and  a  little  later 
follow  the  development  of  the  higher  education 
provided  by  the  state. 

Hampden-Sidney  College,  1775 

Next  to  William  and  Mary  College,  Hampden- 
Sidney  College  is  the  oldest  institution  for  higher 
learning  in  Virginia.  It  grew  out  of  the  needs 
of  the  Presbyterian  communities  in  Prince 
Edward,  Hanover,  and  Cumberland  counties. 
The  pastors  of  the  Presbyterian  churches  in 
that  part  of  Virginia  were  largely  graduates  of 
Princeton  College,  and  it  was  but  natural  that 
they  should  desire  for  their  people  the  same  sort 
of  educational  advantages  to  which  they  were 
accustomed  in  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania. 
Princeton  was  the  model  for  the  college  in  Vir- 
ginia. "  The  college  in  New  Jersey  "  is  often 
referred  to  in  the  early  documents  connected 

139 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

with  the  establishing  of  Hampden-Sidney  Col- 
lege. The  Virginians  wanted  the  same  sort  of 
institution.  This  college  was  established  when 
the  clash  between  the  Church  of  England  and 
the  "  dissenters "  was  at  white  heat.  The 
earliest  document  referring  to  the  establishment 
of  an  academy  in  Prince  Edward  County  ap- 
peared in  the  Virginia  Gazette  of  October, 
1775.  It  is  a  full  announcement  of  the  opening 
of  the  Academy,  November  10,  of  that  year. 
This  document  says  the  college  will  be  "  subject 
to  the  visitation  of  twelve  men  of  character  and 
influence  in  their  respective  counties,  the  im- 
mediate and  active  members  being  chiefly  of 
the  Church  of  England." 
Further  on,  it  says : 

The  system  of  Education  will  resemble  that  which  is 
adopted  in  the  college  of  New  Jersey,  save  that  a  more 
particular  attention  shall  be  paid  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  English  language  than  is  usually  done  in  places  of 
public  Education. 

Another  statement  of  special  interest  is : 

The  public  may  rest  assured  that  the  whole  shall  be 
conducted  in  the  most  catholic  plan.     Parents  of  every 

140 


HIGHER    EDUCATION    IN    VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

denomination  may  be  at  full  liberty  to  require  their 
children  to  attend  any  mode  of  worship  which  either 
custom  or  conscience  has  rendered  most  agreeable  to  them. 

Here  we  have  indeed  a  broad  "  catholic  "  basis 
for  an  educational  institution.  It  is  probably 
true  that  the  members  of  the  Board  of  Trustees 
representing  the  Church  of  England  did  not 
accept  the  honor  of  serving  on  the  Board,  for 
a  man  writing  in  the  next  issue  of  the  Gazette 
under  the  signature  of  "  Luther  "  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  effort  to  establish  a  college  in  Prince 
Edward  and  also  to  the  danger  of  having  the  edu- 
cation of  the  youth  placed  under  the  care  of 
"  dissenters  "  who  profess  doctrines  not  only 
repugnant  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of 
England,  but  in  his  opinion  even  "  subversive 
of  morality."  He  closes  with  a  plea  to  every 
Church-of -England  contributor  to  the  Academy 
to  withhold  his  subscription  from  a  college  con- 
ducted under  such  auspices. 

Here  we  have  the  results  of  a  long  and  bitter 
controversy  between  the  two  prevailing  ideas  of 
the  purpose  of  education:  the  one,  that  a  col- 
lege education  was  a  preparation  primarily  for 

141 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

service  in  the  church,  and  the  other,  that  higher 
education  served  the  purpose  of  preparing  one 
for  service  as  a  citizen  of  the  state.  This  con- 
flict had  been  fought  out  at  Harvard,  Yale,  and 
Princeton  long  before.  Hampden-Sidney  Col- 
lege immediately  lent  its  influence  to  the  political 
affairs  of  the  country,  which  had  become  tense 
and  critical  prior  to  the  Revolutionary  War 
and  the  consequent  founding  of  a  new  form 
of  government  in  America.1  On  November  16, 
1776,  the  trustees  sent  a  memorial  to  the 
House  of  Delegates  at  Williamsburg  which 
has  all  the  earmarks  of  a  fundamental  political 
document  full  of  wisdom  and  advice  regarding 
the  establishment  of  a  free  government  in 
America  and  incidentally  calling  attention  to 

1  A  petition  of  sundry  inhabitants  of  the  county  of  Prince  Edward 
whose  names  are  hereunto  subscribed  (the  first  petition  of  dissenters 
to  the  House  of  Delegates)  was  presented  to  the  House  and  read,  setting 
forth  that  they  heartily  approve  and  cheerfully  submit  themselves  to 
the  form  of  government  adopted  for  this  State,  and  hope  that  the  United 
American  States  will  long  continue  free  and  independent .  .  .  that  justice 
to  themselves  and  posterity  makes  it  their  indispensable  duty  in  particu- 
lar to  entreat  that  without  delay  all  church  establishments  might  be 
pulled  down  and  every  law  upon  conscience  and  private  judgment  abol- 
ished, and  each  individual  left  to  rise  or  sink  by  his  own  merit  and  the 
general  laws  of  the  land.  Journal  of  the  House  of  Delegates,  October  11, 
1776. 

142 


HIGHER    EDUCATION    IN    VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

the  importance  of  Hampden-Sidney  College  as 
an  institution  which  represents  the  ideals  of 
the  new  government.  The  college  long  kept 
in  close  touch  with  the  political  movements 
of  the  time,  and  its  roll  of  graduates  includes 
the  names  of  scores  of  Virginia  statesmen  and 
leaders  in  national  affairs  as  well.  This  identifi- 
cation of  the  college  with  the  state  turned  the 
ears  of  the  legislature  to  its  appeals  for  aid 
many  times. 

The  men  who  have  held  the  position  of  presi- 
dent of  Hampden-Sidney  College  make  a  galaxy 
of  great  names.  Some  of  the  greatest  scholars 
of  America  have  been  connected  with  this  in- 
stitution of  learning.  Patrick  Henry  and  James 
Madison  were  one-time  members  of  the  Board 
of  Trustees  (charter  members) .  The  college  has 
constantly  held  to  the  policies  of  its  founders: 
(1)  that  sound  learning  be  promoted;  (2)  that 
the  principles  of  liberty  and  patriotism  be  im- 
pressed upon  the  youth  of  the  land;  (3)  that 
true  religion  be  conserved  and  the  Kingdom  of 
Christ  be  advanced.  The  college  has  wielded 
a  great  influence  in  every  line  of  professional 

143 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

service.  Its  cultural  influence  has  been  far- 
reaching.  She  trained  thirty-three  presidents 
of  colleges  and  universities  and  one  hundred 
professors  in  like  institutions.  Three  times  the 
students  and  members  of  the  faculty  have  en- 
listed as  a  body  and  marched  to  war.  In  re- 
ligious service  the  college  rendered  a  like  con- 
tribution to  the  country.  Fifty  per  cent  of 
all  its  graduates  have  entered  the  ministry  of 
the  Gospel.  This  record  probably  cannot  be 
matched  by  any  other  college  in  America.  It 
never  had  a  large  enrolment  of  students.  The 
largest  in  any  one  year  was  155.  The  average 
enrolment  has  been  75.  Early  in  the  history 
of  the  college  the  Trustees  memorialized  the 
Legislature  of  Virginia  on  the  subject  of  aid  for 
buildings  and  endowment.  The  state  turned 
over  to  the  college  412  acres  of  land  (1784), 
though  this  was  never  very  productive.  There 
were  many  attempts  to  induce  the  Legislature 
to  give  money  to  the  college  from  time  to  time, 
but  little  was  received  from  this  source.1    In  the 

1  See  calendar  of  Board  Minutes,  Hampden-Sidney  College,  Morrison, 
pp.  118,  121,  126,  134,  140,  and  141. 

144 


HIGHER    EDUCATION   IN   VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

early  days  the  college  was  maintained  by  means 
of  lotteries,  subscription,  private  gifts,  tuition 
fees,  and  rents  from  rooms.  The  Board  minutes 
are  full  of  schemes  by  which  attempts  were 
made  to  put  the  college  on  a  firm  financial  basis. 
The  course  of  studies  as  prescribed  for  the 
college  in  its  early  years  included  a  full  course 
in  the  ancient  languages,  mathematics,  trigo- 
nometry, and  surveying,  the  French  language, 
moral  philosophy,  physics,  and  chemistry.  This 
curriculum  has  been  adjusted  from  time  to 
time  to  meet  the  modern  demands.  The  in- 
stitution has  always  stood  for  sound  scholarship 
in  the  old  traditional  lines.  Efforts  were  made 
at  times  to  establish  a  medical  department  at 
Richmond,  which  seems  to  have  been  in  session 
from  1837  to  1854.1  At  another  time  an  effort 
was  made  to  introduce  manual  labor  (1835), 
but  this  was  never  put  into  real  operation.  The 
Union  Theological  Seminary  was  organized 
at  Hampden-Sidney  (1807)  and  became  the 
institution  for  preparing  ministers,  particularly 
for  the  Presbyterian  Church. 

l  145 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

The  seminary  was  moved  to  Richmond  in 
1898,  and  has  continued  its  fruitful  work  in  its 
new  location.  For  a  few  years  after  this  re- 
moval the  college  passed  through  a  trying 
period  of  readjustment  to  new  conditions,  but 
has  overcome  the  difficulties  arising  from  its 
rural  location,  and  is  to-day  more  vigorous  than 
at  any  time  in  its  long  and  honored  history.  Its 
endowment  has  been  increased,  its  equipment 
made  modern  and  complete,  its  faculty  en- 
larged, and  its  courses  of  study  are  fully  abreast 
of  the  educational  demands  of  the  times. 

Thus,  Hampden-Sidney  College  in  Virginia 
maintains  its  honored  place  among  the  in- 
stitutions for  higher  learning  in  the  South,  and 
continues  to  wield  a  wide  and  permanent  influ- 
ence both  in  Virginia  and  in  the  nation  at  large. 
^  Summary.  —  Hampden-Sidney  College  was 
conceived,  established,  and  maintained  by 
church  authority.  In  this  sense  it  was  a  church 
school  offering  Christian  education  though  recog- 
nizing the  effectiveness  of  education  for  citizen- 
ship and  public  service.  It  sought  support 
often  from  the  state,  and  while  there  was  always 

146 


HIGHER    EDUCATION    IN 'VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

a  strong  inclination  on  the  part  of  the  Legisla- 
ture of  Virginia  to  aid  the  college,  it  was  more 
interested  in  developing  a  state  university 
over  which  it  could  have  more  direct  control. 
Hampden-Sidney's  greatest  contribution  was  in 
the  line  of  religious  education,  it  having  inspired 
and  furnished  the  leaders  for  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  —  first  at  Hampden-Sidney 
College  and  later  of  Richmond,  —  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary,  and  Austin  Theological 
Seminary.  Fifty  per  cent  of  its  graduates 
have  gone  into  the  ministry. 

Washington  and  Lee  University,  1776 

Washington  and  Lee  University  had  its  origin 
in  the  Scotch-Irish  settlement  west  of  the  Blue 
Ridge  in  Augusta  and  Rockbridge  counties. 
The  people,  like  those  in  Prince  Edward  County, 
had  come  from  the  colonies  to  the  north,  and 
directly  from  Scotland  and  Ireland,  where  they 
had  had  the  advantage  of  a  complete  education. 
The  father  of  Rev.  Archibald  Alexander  was 
instrumental  in  establishing  a  school  (1775)  at 
Timber  Ridge  near  Lexington,  where  the  classi- 

147 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

cal  languages  were  taught  by  efficient  instruc- 
tors. This  was  the  nucleus  around  which 
Liberty  Hall  Academy  and  later  Washington 
College  grew,  and  upon  whose  foundations 
the  present  Washington  and  Lee  University 
rests.  Liberty  Hall  Academy  was  established 
in  1776  by  the  same  Scotch-Irish  stock  that 
founded  Hampden-Sidney  College,  whose  love 
for  learning  and  liberty  meant  so  much  to  Ameri- 
can freedom  and  education. 

In  1796  General  Washington  endowed  the 
academy  with  one  hundred  shares  of  stock 
in  the  James  River  Navigation  Company,  which 
had  been  presented  to  him  by  the  Legislature  of 
Virginia,  in  appreciation  of  services  rendered 
this  country  in  the  Revolutionary  War.  This 
property,  added  to  the  original,  which  was 
already  considerable  for  that  time,  constituted 
the  foundation  for  the  future  university.  In 
1798  the  institution  took  the  name  of  "  Washing- 
ton College."  In  1803  the  college  was  still 
further  endowed  by  a  gift  from  the  funds  of  the 
Cincinnati  Society,  which  at  that  time  was 
dissolved.     In   1826    the  large  estate  of  John 

148 


HIGHER  EDUCATION    IN   VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

Robinson,  of  Rockbridge,  a  trustee  of  the  col- 
lege, was  added,  which  formed  the  basis  of  two 
professorships.  Other  gifts  by  will  have  been 
added,  making  a  rich  endowment. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  institution  rests  upon 
an  entirely  independent  basis,  with  no  direct 
church  or  state  control,  though  the  college  was 
established  and  maintained  by  Presbyterian 
fosterage.  Its  affairs  have  always  been  managed 
by  a  self -perpetuating  Board  of  Trustees.  It 
has  always  ranked  high  among  the  American 
colleges.  In  1865  Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee  was 
elected  president,  and  under  his  management  new 
courses  were  laid  out  in  which  large  opportuni- 
ties were  provided  for  the  study  of  practical 
and  applied  science.  An  overflowing  patronage 
followed  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  both 
North  and  South.  After  the  death  of  General 
Lee,  the  name  of  Washington  and  Lee  Univer- 
sity was  given  to  the  college. 

Among  the  ideals  of  the  college  are:  (1)  sound 
scholarship  in  the  classics,  mathematics,  his- 
tory, literature,  and  philosophy;  (2)  high  type 
of    manhood;     (3)  a   system    of   honor   among 

149 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

its  students;  (4)  learning  for  public  service 
rather  than  for  personal  achievement  or  the 
attainment  of  any  kind  of  success. 

The  university  has  from  time  to  time  adjusted 
its  curricula  to  the  needs  of  the  people  of  the 
South,  introducing  some  of  the  more  practical 
arts  such  as  engineering,  law,  and  agriculture. 
It  has  always  encouraged  graduate  work  and 
high  scholarship  by  offering  prizes.  Students 
preparing  for  the  Christian  ministry  of  any  de- 
nomination receive  free  tuition.  Definite  ad- 
ministrative policies  looking  to  the  habits, 
morals,  social,  and  patriotic  welfare  of  the 
students  have  been  in  operation.  The  student 
body  is  divided  into  small  groups,  and  each 
group  assigned  to  a  member  of  the  faculty,  who 
is  responsible  for  the  habits  of  study  and  general 
conduct  of  the  members  of  his  group.  It  has 
long  been  the  policy  of  the  faculty  of  trusting 
the  students  and  freeing  university  life  from  es- 
pionage and  deceit.  One  has  but  to  run  over 
the  list  of  the  alumni  in  state  and  national 
service  to  ascertain  how  well  these  ideals  have 
been  carried  out. 

150 


HIGHER    EDUCATION    IN  VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

Summary. — Washington  and  Lee  Univer-.D< 
sity  is  a  typical  independent  institution  free 
from  direct  church  or  state  control.  It  came 
to  serve  the  country  in  a  peculiar  way  in  fostering 
good  citizenship  in  the  nation  and  the  spirit 
of  public  service  which  was  so  important  in 
America  in  the  early  history  of  this  government. 
It  has  recently  received  gifts  that  make  its 
endowment  large,  and  because  of  this,  the 
institution  is  planning  important  expansions 
in  equipment  and  curricula. 

Randolph-Macon  College,  1830 

Randolph-Macon  College  was  the  first  in- 
stitution for  higher  learning  established  in 
Virginia  by  the  Methodist  Church.  It  was 
inspired  by  Bishop  Asbury,  the  first  head  of 
that  church  in  America.  At  the  beginning  of 
this  century  there  were  many  Methodists 
in  America,  scattered  along  the  coast  from 
Connecticut  to  Georgia.  In  1784  there  were 
14,988  Methodists  in  America.  Probably  the 
first  Methodist  Academy  in  America  was  es- 
tablished  in   Brunswick   County,    Virginia,   in 

151 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

1785,  by  Bishop  Asbury.  It  was  he  who  es- 
tablished the  first  college  (1839)  of  high  grade 
for  women  in  America,  and  perhaps  in  the  world, 
Wesleyan  Female  College  at  Macon,  Georgia. 
As  early  as  1820  the  Virginia  Conference  of 
the  Methodist  Church  took  up  the  matter  of 
establishing  a  "  Seminary  of  Learning."  Year 
after  year  the  matter  was  laid  on  the  table. 
The  Conference  of  1827  heard  the  report  of  a 
committee  ona"  Constitution  for  the  College," 
and  the  members  of  the  Conference  were  urged 
to  obtain  subscriptions  within  the  boundaries 
of  the  Conference  for  the  college.  The  site  of 
the  proposed  college  was  fixed  at  or  near  Boyd- 
ton,  Virginia,  largely  by  the  influence  of  the 
Rev.  H.  G.  Leigh.  The  Virginia  Conference 
included  within  its  bounds  the  adjacent  counties 
in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  and  it  was 
thought  best  to  locate  the  college  near  the 
state  line  between  these  two  states.  In  Feb- 
ruary, 1830,  the  following  bill  was  enacted  by 
the  Virginia  Legislature: 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  General   Assembly   that 
there  be  and  is  hereby  erected  and  established  at  or  near 

152 


HIGHER    EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA,     1775-1860 

Boydton  in  the  county  of  Mecklenburg  a  seminary  of 
learning  for  the  instruction  of  youth  in  the  various 
branches  of  science,  literature,  the  useful  arts,  agricul- 
ture, and  the  learned  and  foreign  languages.  That  the 
seminary  shall  be  known  and  called  by  the  name  of 
"Randolph  Macon  College." 

The  college  was  named  for  John  Randolph  of 
Roanoke  and  Nathaniel  Macon,  two  prominent 
Congressmen,  the  former  from  Virginia  and 
the  latter  from  North  Carolina.  The  Rev. 
Stephen  Olin,  D.D.,  was  the  first  president. 
The  college  started  off  with  a  faculty  of  five  pro- 
fessors and  a  Board  of  Trustees  of  thirty  mem- 
bers. The  college  flourished  from  the  first 
and  took  its  place  as  one  of  the  institutions  of 
learning  of  high  rank.  In  1834  there  were  sixty- 
six  students  in  the  preparatory  department  and 
eighty-seven  in  the  college.1 

In  June,  1839,  a  resolution  was  passed  by 
the  Board  to  establish  a  normal  department 
for  the  preparation  of  teachers.  This  is  the 
year  the  first  normal  school  was  established  in 
America  at  Salem,  Massachusetts.  The  pro- 
visions of  the  resolution,  however,  were  never 

1  The  Morrison  MS.,  "  Academies  in  Virginia." 
153 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

carried  out.  The  college  drew  mainly  from 
the  states  south  of  Virginia. 

Along  in  the  40's  the  trustees  reported  a 
lack  of  funds  to  support  the  college,  and  at  that 
time  it  seemed  the  embarrassment  would  be 
fatal  to  its  future  welfare,  but  in  1846  it  was 
reported  that  $100,000  had  been  raised  for  the 
college  and  a  great  impetus  was  given  to  the 
college  during  the  able  administration  of  Dr. 
W.  A.  Smith. 

In  March,  1847,  there  was  an  effort  to  organ- 
ize a  medical  department,  but  it  never  resulted 
in  any  permanent  success.  The  college  dis- 
banded in  1861,  and  during  the  Civil  War  period 
it  was  decided  to  remove  the  college  to  Ashland, 
Virginia,  where  it  has  ever  since  remained  and 
prospered.1 

Some  of  the  most  renowned  scholars  of 
America  have  been  members  of  its  faculty, 
some  of  whom  are  Thomas  R.  Price  and  James 
A.   Harrison.     The   curriculum   in   this   college 

1  The  conference  in  North  Carolina,  which  had  joined  originally  in 
establishing  the  college,  later  withdrew  its  support  and  established  an 
institution  within  its  own  bounds,  —  Trinity  College  at  Durham, 
North  Carolina. 

154 


HIGHER    EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

is  organized  into  schools,  and  the  students  can, 
with  the  advice  of  parents  or  guardian,  elect 
the  course  they  prefer.  This  is  the  elective  sys- 
tem as  carried  out  in  the  University  of  Virginia. 
The  chair  of  English  was  created  at  the  opening 
of  the  college  at  Ashland  and  put  on  an  equality 
with  the  ancient  languages.  The  government 
of  the  college  is  administered  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple of  respect  for  moral  improvement  of  one's 
self  as  a  gentleman  and  not  according  to  re- 
strictive regulation.  This  college  has  prepared 
many  teachers  for  the  secondary  schools  in 
Virginia.  It  has  sent  many  students  to  higher 
institutions  of  learning  for  graduate  work. 

Richmond  College,  1830 

The  Virginia  Baptist  Seminary  was  an  out- 
growth of  the  Virginia  Baptist  Education 
Society,  organized  in  1830.  This  seminary 
was  founded  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  young 
men  who  in  the  judgment  of  the  churches  were 
called  to  the  ministry,  but  others  than  those 
students  for  the  ministry  were  admitted  to  the 
school.     The  attendance  upon  this  school  was 

155 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

seventy  pupils.  It  had  early  acquired  a  consid- 
erable acreage  of  land,  and  "  manual  labor  "  was 
compulsory  for  all  students.  It  will  be  observed 
that  this  was  a  feature  of  education  which 
was  strongly  advocated  by  some  educational 
leaders  in  America,  and  it  had  its  appeal  to  those 
institutions  which  had  meagre  endowments, 
being  a  time  in  Virginia  when  agriculture  was 
promoted  by  more  or  less  active  instruction  at 
all  the  colleges.  There  was  an  effort  to  estab- 
lish manual  labor  as  a  scheme  of  education  in 
connection  with  this  college  (1830).  This  was 
the  time  at  which  the  "  Society  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Manual  Labor "  was  active  in 
America.  This  scheme  of  education  had  its 
beginning  in  the  Fellenburg  movement  in  Swit- 
zerland (1806). x 

The  institution  was  chartered  as  "  Richmond 
College  "  in  1841,  with  the  Rev.  Robert  Ryland 
as  president.  It  developed  the  college  curricu- 
lum year  by  year  by  adding  Freshman,  Sopho- 
more, Junior,  and  Senior  courses.     In  1845  the 

1  See  Hampden-Sidney,  Randolph-Macon,  and  Emory  and  Henry 
colleges. 

156 


HIGHER    EDUCATION   IN   VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

Junior  year  was  added,  and  in  1849  the  first 
graduate  received  the  first  Bachelor's  Degree. 
In  the  50' s  this  college  was  in  a  flourishing  con- 
dition with  a  considerable  endowment  and 
apparatus  for  its  use.  The  college  prospered 
up  to  the  Civil  War,  when  its  sessions  ceased. 
Soon  after  the  surrender,  the  trustees  reorganized 
the  college  on  the  University  of  Virginia  system, 
with  separate  schools  and  elective  courses. 
An  endowment  fund  of  $100,000  was  raised,  and 
the  college  grew  in  popularity.  In  1870  the  law 
department  was  organized.  The  General  Baptist 
Association  raised  a  further  endowment  fund.1 

In  1891  the  college  secured  a  new  charter. 
The  number  of  schools  and  professors  was  in- 
creased. In  1895  Dr.  F.  W.  Boatwright  was 
elected  president,  and  since  that  time  the  en- 
dowment has  been  increased  and  a  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  work  of  the  college  has  been  put 
into  operation.  The  curricula  now  include  ad- 
vanced courses  in  ancient  languages,  foreign 
languages,  mathematics,  science,  history,  and 
politics,  philosophy,  economics,  and  education. 

1  In  1873  the  college  had  an  endowment  of  $150,000. 
157 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

In  1914  the  college  sold  its  property  holdings 
in  the  city  of  Richmond,  which  had  become 
very  valuable  by  reason  of  the  growth  of  the 
city  in  that  direction,  and  moved  to  a  large 
acreage  at  West  Hampton  and  erected  commo- 
dious buildings  on  the  plan  of  Oxford  University, 
England,  and  has  affiliated  with  it  West  Hamp- 
ton College  for  women. 

The  new  buildings  and  grounds  are  now 
located  outside  the  corporate  limits  of  Rich- 
mond, but  connected  by  an  electric  carline,  and 
are  worth  about  one  quarter  of  a  million  dollars 
(the  buildings  and  equipment  costing  $1,100,000 
in  actual  cash  outlay) .  The  grounds  embrace  290 
acres  in  one  solid  block.  The  college  at  present 
has  a  productive  endowment  of  $1,020,797.76. 
There  are  eleven  full  professors  and  seven 
associate  professors  in  the  academic  depart- 
ment. The  Board  of  Trustees  has  recently 
planned  a  very  important  increase  in  the  pro- 
ductive endowment  of  the  college.  With  this 
rich  outlay  of  college  equipment,  Richmond 
College  has  started  on  an  era  of  increased  use- 
fulness to  the  church,  the  state,  and  the  nation. 

158 


HIGHER    EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

Summary.  —  This  institution  is  the  Baptist 
College  sustained  and  supported  by  that  denom- 
ination. It,  however,  like  the  other  denom- 
inational colleges,  is  based  on  a  broad  and 
catholic  foundation  and  seeks  to  give  a  liberal 
and  professional  education  to  people  of  all 
classes  regardless  of  creed  or  belief. 

Emory  and  Henry  College,  18S8 

As  early  as  1833  the  people  of  the  south- 
western part  of  Virginia,  and  especially  the 
ministers  of  that  section,  realized  the  need  of 
establishing  a  college  in  that  part  of  the  state. 
This  movement  was  headed  by  the  Rev.  Creed 
Fulton,  a  member  of  the  Holston  Conference 
of  the  Methodist  Church.  In  1835  the  Holston 
Conference  passed  a  resolution,  looking  to  the 
establishment  of  a  college  somewhere  in  south- 
west Virginia. 

i  At  a  meeting  of  the  citizens  in  the  Glade 
Springs  Presbyterian  Church,  a  subscription 
of  $5000  was  raised.  Presbyterians,  as  well 
as  Methodists,  gave  liberally  to  this  cause. 
About   the   same   time    another    meeting   was 

159 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

held  at  Abingdon,  where  $5000  was  sub- 
scribed for  the  college  property.  Soon  a  site 
was  selected  and  a  purchase  of  six  hundred 
acres  of  land  was  made  nine  miles  east  of  Abing- 
don. 

The  institution  was  to  be  a  "  manual  labor  " 
school,  in  which  the  students  could  spend  a  part 
of  each  day  in  farm  labor ;  by  this  service  they 
were  enabled  to  pay  a  part  of  their  expenses 
at  college.  The  school  opened  April  13,  1838, 
with  one  hundred  students  in  attendance.  The 
first  president  was  the  Rev.  Charles  Collins. 
The  students  were  grouped  into  sections  of 
eight  or  ten,  and  one  of  their  number  selected 
as  an  overmaster;  they  worked  on  the  farm  from 
two  to  six  o'clock  in  the  afternoons.  Each 
student  was  allowed  from  two  to  five  cents  an 
hour  for  his  labor.  This  plan,  at  first  compul- 
sory, was  soon  abandoned,  though  it  was  con- 
tinued as  a  voluntary  system  for  eight  or  ten 


years.1 


1  The  daily  schedule  ran  as  follows : 

5  a.m.,  rising  bell 
5.30  a.m.,  summons  to  prayers  and  roll  call 
6-7  a.m.,  recitations 

160 


HIGHER    EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

The  college  prospered  from  the  first,  but  by 
1843  a  considerable  debt  had  accumulated, 
when  the  State  Legislature  loaned  the  college 
$18,000  from  the  Literary  Fund;  with  this 
it  cancelled  the  obligation.  After  this,  the  col- 
lege, without  endowment  or  donation,  kept 
clear  of  debt  for  thirty  years.  At  the  opening 
of  the  Civil  War  the  college  had  280  students 
in  attendance.  After  the  war  the  number  of 
students  fell  off  to  a  few  more  than  a  hundred. 

The  site  for  the  college  was  chosen  because  of 
its  healthful  locality  and  its  remoteness  from 
city  temptations  and  distractions.  It  was  lo- 
cated in  the  heart  of  the  Blue  Grass  Region 
among  the  mountains  of  the  southwest  in  the 
open,  rural  country.  Much  was  made  of  this 
fact  in  the  location  of  colleges  in  Virginia  in 
the  early  years  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Hampden-Sidney,  Randolph  Macon,  and  Roa- 

7  a.m.,  breakfast 

8  a.m.  to  1  p.m.,  recitations 
1  p.m.,  dinner 

2-4  p.m.,  manual  labor 

5  p.m.,  supper  and  prayers 
6-7  p.m.,  recreation  —  walks 

9  p.m.,  retiring  bell 

m  161 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

noke  colleges  chose  their  sites  with  this  idea 
in  view,  and  attention  was  called  to  this  fact 
in  advertising  for  students. 

Emory  and  Henry  College  was  named  for 
Rev.  Bishop  John  Emory  and  Patrick  Henry, 
the  one  a  noted  churchman  and  the  other 
the  famous  orator  and  one-time  Governor  of 
Virginia.  The  curricula  at  Emory  and  Henry 
College  included  the  traditional  subjects  of 
Latin,  Greek,  and  mathematics.  These  were 
looked  upon  as  standard  subjects  for  mental 
discipline.  The  sciences,  history,  and  the  mod- 
ern languages  later  received  due  emphasis. 
Due  time  and  attention  has  always  been  given 
to  the  mental  and  moral  sciences. 

The  college,  though  maintained  and  controlled 
by  the  Methodist  Church,  did  not  emphasize 
in  its  curriculum  the  distinctively  theological 
branches  of  study,  as  some  of  the  other  de- 
nominational colleges  did.  The  school  seeks 
to  give  a  liberal  education  in  a  thoroughly 
Christian  atmosphere. 

The  patronage  of  the  college  came  from  the 
slaveholding  class,  and  the  students  were  not 

162 


HIGHER    EDUCATION    IN    VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

accustomed  to  the  restraint  they  found  at  col- 
lege. Out  of  this  situation  there  grew  up  a 
spirit  of  antagonism,  with  the  student  body  on 
one  side  and  the  faculty  on  the  other.  The 
students  did  not  look  upon  going  to  college 
as  a  privilege,  but  rather  as  a  thing  to  be  en- 
dured. This  attitude  lasted  through  the  early 
history  of  Emory  and  Henry  College,  and  on 
many  occasions  resulted  in  student  rebellions; 
but  this  spirit  has  long  passed  away  and  a 
more  healthful  and  wholesome  sentiment  among 
the  student  body  prevails.  Some  of  the  more 
important  factors  bringing  about  this  better 
state  of  affairs  were :  (1)  the  organization  of  a 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  (2)  organi- 
zation of  literary  societies,  and  (3)  the  inaugu- 
ration of  a  student  publication. 

The  two  literary  societies,  Calliopean  and 
Hermesian,  have  exercised  a  great  influence 
upon  the  student  life  at  Emory  and  Henry. 
These  societies  were  organized  about  1840  and 
have  passed  through  the  various  difficulties 
that  such  organizations  encounter,  but  at  pres- 
ent each  is  housed  in  a  sumptuously-furnished 

163 


K 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

hall,  with  library  and  other  equipment.  A 
splendid  spirit  of  rivalry  prevails  between  the 
two  societies,  and  the  debating  and  oratorical 
contests  are  the  most  attractive  features  of  the 
commencement  season. 

Summary. — Emory  and  Henry  College  is  one 
of  the  typical  denomination  colleges  maintained 
by  the  Methodist  Church.  It  had  its  origin  in 
the  Holston  Conference  of  that  church,  which 
includes  territory  in  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and 
North  Carolina.  The  government  of  the  col- 
lege is  vested  in  a  Board  of  Trustees  appointed 
by  the  Conference  of  the  church.  It  has  drawn 
its  patronage  mainly  from  Virginia,  Tennessee, 
and  North  Carolina.  Many  of  its  graduates 
have  gone  into  the  ministry  and  many  more  into 
the  various  walks  of  professional  and  political  life. 
Emory  and  Henry  College  has  furnished  many 
teachers  for  the  public  schools  of  the  state. 

The  Episcopal  High  School,  18S9 

The  Episcopal  High  School  was  established 
at  the  instance  of  Bishop  Meade  by  the  trustees 
of   the   Episcopal  Theologial   Seminary.     This 

164 


HIGHER   EDUCATION    IN    VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

school  was  opened  in  the  fall  of  1839  and  was 
intended  for  the  preparation  of  boys  for  college 
and  the  seminary  near  by.  Both  of  these  insti- 
tutions are  located  near  Alexandria,  which  com- 
munity had  long  been  the  seat  of  various  acad- 
emies and  free  schools  endowed  by  persons  of 
wealth,  particularly  by  General  Washington, 
whose  estate  was  not  far  away. 

The  High  School  was  established  with  the 
following  objects  in  view :  (1)  for  a  thorough 
education  in  Christian  principles  and  the  exer- 
cise of  a  wholesome  moral  and  religious  influence 
over  the  youth;  (2)  for  a  thorough  teaching 
of  every  branch  of  preparatory  learning,  either 
for  college  or  for  business. 

The  course  of  study  comprises  the  classical  and 
modern  languages,  English,  history,  mathematics, 
and  the  sciences.  The  work  done  at  this  school 
is  of  such  advanced  nature  as  to  enable  many 
of  its  graduates  to  enter  the  second  or  even  the 
third  year  of  a  college  course.  The  theological 
seminary  near  by  is  the  school  for  the  prepara- 
tion for  the  Episcopal  ministry  in  Virginia  and 
in  Maryland.     The  theological  study  that  had 

165 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

been  done  so  long  at  William  and  Mary  College 
was  transferred  to  this  seminary  at  Alexandria, 
since  the  latter  had  become  a  semi-state  and  in- 
dependent college. 

The  Episcopal  High  School  and  the  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  at  Alexandria  have,  more  distinctly 
than  any  other  of  the  church  schools,  served 
the  church  under  whose  auspices  they  were 
established. 

Roanoke  College,  181^2 

The  germ  of  Roanoke  College  was  Virginia  In- 
stitute, near  Mt.  Tabor  in  Augusta  County. 
This  school  at  first  was  a  private  venture  of  Rev. 
David  F.  Bittle,  pastor  of  a  Lutheran  Church 
in  that  part  of  the  county.  He  succeeded  in 
interesting  some  members  of  the  congregation 
in  establishing  a  school  for  the  teaching  of  the 
higher  branches  of  English,  ancient  languages, 
and  mathematics.  He  called  to  his  assistance 
the  Rev.  Christopher  C.  Baughman,  who  con- 
ducted the  classes  in  English  and  the  ancient 
languages,  while  Dr.  Bittle  met  the  classes 
twice  a  week  in  mathematics.     Two  log  houses 

166 


HIGHER   EDUCATION    IN   VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

were  erected  on  the  land  of  Benjamin  F.  Hail- 
man,  Esq.,  the  one  to  be  used  for  classes  and 
the  other  for  lodging  of  students.  In  May,  1843, 
the  Lutheran  Synod  of  Virginia  took  up  the 
question  of  establishing  a  classical  school  within 
the  bounds  of  that  Synod.  The  Virginia  In- 
stitute at  Mt.  Tabor  was  reported  as  being  in 
such  a  nourishing  condition  that  it  was  decided 
to  locate  the  school  there.  In  1845  the  school 
was  incorporated  as  the  Virginia  Collegiate  In- 
stitute. This  school  prospered  for  a  few  years, 
when  the  question  of  removing  it  to  a  more 
convenient  location  arose.  Accordingly,  the 
school  was  moved  to  Salem,  Virginia,  in  1847. 
In  1848,  by  order  of  the  Trustees,  the  first 
building  was  erected  on  the  present  campus 
and  the  school  started  off  on  its  career  of 
usefulness.  Funds  were  solicited  in  order  to 
increase  the  accommodations  at  the  school  to 
meet  the  growing  patronage.  About  1853  there 
was  a  strong  sentiment  in  favor  of  turning 
the  institute  into  a  college.  There  was  serious 
opposition  to  this  change  among  some  mem- 
bers of  the  faculty  and  the  principal.     The  first 

167 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

steps  in  the  movement  for  securing  a  charter 
were  taken  by  the  students  themselves.  They 
held  a  meeting,  passed  resolutions,  and  pre- 
sented them  to  Principal  Baughman  for  his 
approval.  He  reluctantly  gave  his  sanction, 
and  a  charter  was  granted  by  the  legislature  in 
March,  1853,  and  Virginia  Collegiate  Institute 
became  Roanoke  College. 

Dr.  Bittle  was  elected  the  first  president  and 
served  in  that  capacity  until  1876.  During 
that  time  the  college  passed  through  many  diffi- 
culties, but  it  was  substantially  on  a  firm  founda- 
tion and  had  a  growing  reputation  at  the  time 
of  his  death.  The  college  acquired  property, 
maintained  high  standards  of  scholarship,  and 
laid  down  for  its  ideal  the  policy  of  giving  a 
liberal  Christian  education.  It  has  always  given 
a  prominent  place  in  its  curricula  to  courses  of 
study  in  the  Christian  religion  and  the  Bible. 
It  receives  its  patronage  from  all  religious  de- 
nominations. Fifty  per  cent  of  its  students 
at  present  are  of  other  than  the  Lutheran  de- 
nomination. During  the  Civil  War  Roanoke 
College  was  one  of  the  few  institutions  of  higher 

168 


HIGHER    EDUCATION    IN   VIRGINIA,    1775-1860 

learning  in  the  state  that  kept  its  doors  open. 
In  1878  the  college  had  nine  members  on  its 
faculty  and  168  students  in  attendance.  The 
college  started  off  with  no  endowment  and  re- 
ceived its  support  from  student  fees  and  annual 
contributions  from  friends  of  education. 

In  1872  the  college  organized  a  normal  de- 
partment for  the  purpose  of  training  teachers  for 
the  public  schools  of  the  state,  and  many  of  the 
very  best  teachers  in  the  secondary  schools  of 
Virginia  got  their  training  here.  The  evidence 
of  the  interest  in  training  teachers  is  manifest 
in  the  books  on  the  "  History  of  Education  " 
written  by  a  member  of  the  faculty  of  this 
college,  Dr.  F.  V.  N.  Painter.  The  president 
and  members  of  the  faculty  have  given  valuable 
service  to  the  educational  activities  of  the  state, 
particularly  at  the  time  the  public  school 
system  was  being  organized,  by  conducting 
teachers'  institutes  and  offering  advantages  at 
the  college  for  the  training  of  teachers.  Dr. 
Painter  originated  the  plan  of  a  reading  course 
for  teachers  in  1884.  The  institution  has  taken 
a   firm    rank    as    a    standard    college.     It   has 

169 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

doubled  its  efficiency  in  the  last  fifteen  years. 
The  college  numbers  among  its  graduates  some 
of  the  most  gifted  scholars  in  America  and 
men  in  all  the  walks  of  political  and  professional 
life. 

Summary.  —  Roanoke  College  is  the  con- 
tribution of  the  Lutheran  Church  and  other 
church  people  to  the  cause  of  Christian  liberal 
education  for  the  service  of  church  and  state. 


170 


CHAPTER  X 

STATE     INSTITUTIONS     FOR     HIGHER     LEARNING. 
THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   VIRGINIA 

"  The  great  man,  whose  conception  the  pecul- 
iar and  unique  structure  of  the  University 
originated  and  whose  persistent  efforts  for 
almost  half  a  century  at  length  brought  into 
being,  always  connected  University  and  common 
school  education  as  necessary  parts  of  one 
whole."  » 

Jefferson's  Early  Plan  for  a  System  of 
Education.  —  Jefferson's  plan  for  an  educa- 
tional system  for  Virginia,  as  a  member  of  the 
Committee  of  co-revisers  of  the  laws,  to  coin- 
cide with  the  new  system  of  government, 
included  a  general  plan  of  education  for  all 
classes  of  the  people  alike.  It  was  based  on 
the  democratic  idea  that  the  education  of  the 

1  Wm.  H.  Ruffner,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Report 
1872,  p.  109. 

171 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

people  is  a  proper  subject  and  care  of  govern- 
ment. This  plan  comprehended  three  types 
of  schools : 

(1)  Elementary  schools,  to  be  maintained  at  public 
charge  in  the  local  communities. 

(2)  General  schools,  corresponding  to  academies  and 
colleges,  or  modern,  secondary  schools,  to  be  supported 
in  part  by  direct  State  appropriation  and  in  part  by  tuition 
fees.  The  course  of  study  in  these  schools  embraced  in- 
struction in  ancient  and  modern  languages,  the  sciences, 
mental  and  moral  philosophy,  and  political  sciences. 

(3)  A  University,1  in  which  were  to  be  taught  "  all 
branches  of  knowledge  in  the  highest  degree,' '  and  to  be 
supported  wholly  by  the  state. 

This  wise  and  magnificent  plan  failed  of 
passage  at  this  time.  In  1796  a  plan  for  pri- 
mary schools  passed,  but  it  was  ineffective 
(see  p.  102).  From  time  to  time  the  plan  was 
submitted  to  the  Legislature,  but  that  body 
felt  that  it  would  incur  too  great  a  tax  upon 
the  people  and  refused  to  pass  the  act  proposed. 
In  1809  Mr.  Jefferson,  retiring  from  the  presi- 
dency of  the  United  States  to  his  home  at 
Monticello,  in  Virginia,  again  took  up  his  pet 

1  It  was  the  original  plan  to  make  the  state  University  out  of  William 
and  Mary  College. 

172 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  VIRGINIA 

scheme  for  a  system  of  education  in  Virginia, 
maintaining  to  the  last  that  a  scheme  for  pri- 
mary education  should  go  hand  in  hand  with 
any  provision  for  higher  education.  In  1810 
the  Literary  Fund  was  established  and  pro- 
vided a  basis  for  a  permanent  state  fund  for 
educational  purposes.  In  this  Jefferson  saw 
a  possible  chance  for  a  scheme  to  carry,  and 
gave  the  energies  of  his  last  years  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  plan.1 

Public  education  was  a  part  of  his  political 
philosophy,  and  while  he  saw  the  university 
rise  in  all  its  architectural  beauty  and  in  its 
provisions  for  thorough  instruction,  he  must 
have  regretted  that  the  people  of  Virginia 
were  so  unwise  as  to  neglect  so  long  the  pro- 
vision for  primary  instruction  for  all  the  people 
of  the  state.2  He  says :  "  Where  the  press  is 
free  and  every  man  able  to  read,  all  is  safe." 

1  In  a  letter  to  Hugh  White,  in  1810,  Jefferson  writes :  "No  one  more 
sincerely  wishes  the  spread  of  information  among  mankind  than  I  do, 
and  no  one  has  greater  confidence  in  its  effect  toward  supporting  free  and 
good  government." 

2  In  a  letter  to  George  Wythe,  Jefferson  writes :  "  Preach,  my  dear  sir, 
a  crusade  against  ignorance.  Establish  and  improve  the  laws  for  educat- 
ing the  common  people." 

173 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Jefferson's  Struggle  for  a  University.  — « 
Jefferson  sat  in  his  office  at  Monticello  and  kept 
in  close  touch  with  all  that  was  going  on  in 
Richmond  while  the  Legislature  was  in  session. 
He  wrote,  in  the  form  of  letters  to  his  friends 
there,  the  argument  for  the  university  and  for  a 
system  of  primary  schools.  There  seems  to  have 
been  some  question  among  the  legislators  as  to 
the  good  effect  of  education  for  citizenship.  In 
the  defence  of  the  bill  pending  in  1817,  he  writes  : 

And  will  the  wealthy  have  no  retribution?  And 
what  will  this  be?  The  peopling  of  his  neighborhood 
with  honest,  useful,  and  enlightened  people,  understand- 
ing their  own  rights  and  firm  in  their  perpetuation.  So 
when  his  own  descendants  become  poor,  which  they  do 
within  three  generations,  their  children  will  be  educated 
by  the  then  rich,  and  the  little  advance  he  now  makes 
toward  poverty,  while  rich  himself,  will  be  repaid  by  the 
then  rich  to  his  descendants  when  they  become  poor  and 
thus  give  them  a  chance  of  rising  again.  ...  A  system 
of  education  which  shall  reach  every  description  of  citi- 
zen from  the  richest  to  the  poorest,  as  it  was  the  earliest, 
so  will  it  be  the  latest  of  all  public  concerns  in  which  I 
shall  permit  myself  to  take  an  interest.  Nor  am  I  tena- 
cious of  the  form  in  which  it  shall  be  introduced. 

In  another  letter  to  his  friend  Cabell  he 
taunts  the  legislators  by  comparing  the  prog- 

174 


THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  VIRGINIA 

ress  in  education   made  in  the  state  of  New 
York.     He  writes: 

Six  thousand  common  schools  in  New  York,  fifty  in 
each;  300,000  in  all.  $160,000  paid  to  the  masters 
annually  of  forty  academies.  The  whole  appropriation 
for  education  is  estimated  as  two  and  a  half  million  of 
dollars.  What  a  pigmy  is  Virginia  to  this  and  with  a 
population  almost  equal  to  that  of  New  York,  and  whence 
this  difference?  From  the  difference  their  rulers  set  on 
the  value  of  knowledge  and  the  prosperity  it  produces. 

Jefferson  evidently  intended  that  the  uni- 
versity should  be  the  capstone  of  the  educa- 
tional system  of  the  state,  but  there  must  have 
come  a  time  when  he  gave  up  in  despair  the 
hope  of  an  effective  system  of  primary  educa- 
tion and  turned  all  his  attention  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  state  University.  This  spirit  is 
expressed  in  a  letter  to  William  Barry,  July  12, 
1822: 

The  reports  show  that  our  primary  schools  are  be- 
coming completely  abortive  and  must  be  abandoned 
very  shortly,  after  costing  us  to  this  day  180  thousand 
dollars,  and  yet  to  cost  45,000  more  until  it  shall  be  dis- 
continued, and  if  a  single  boy  has  received  the  elements 
of  a  common  education  it  must  be  in  some  part  of  the 
country  not  known  to  me. 

175 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

The  fight  for  the  state  University  was  a 
long  and  at  times  a  bitter  one.  There  were 
many  factors  in  the  situation  that  presented  a 
strong  opposition.  (1)  It  was  an  innovation. 
It  had  not  been  the  custom  for  a  state  to  build 
and  maintain  an  institution  for  higher  learning. 
That  for  centuries  in  Europe  had  been  the 
function  of  the  church  and  it  had  become  the 
custom  in  America.  At  least  it  was  not  thought 
in  Virginia  to  be  a  function  of  government  to 
maintain  and  control  higher  education.  (2)  At 
this  time  (1818)  in  Virginia  there  was  a  great 
fear  among  the  people  of  taxation,  and  to  create 
a  new  demand  for  public  money  looked  like  a 
dangerous  move.  (3)  The  various  church  de- 
nominations had  already  established  colleges, 
and  these  were  in  a  measure  endowed  and  in  a 
more  or  less  flourishing  condition.  These  seemed 
to  be  sufficient  for  higher  training  in  the  state. 
There  was  a  strong  effort  on  the  part  of  these  in- 
stitutions, which  were  well  represented  in  the 
Legislature,  to  have  the  state  subsidize  these 
colleges.  This  was  set  forth  as  a  more  economi- 
cal plan,  and  thus  it  would  not  be  binding  upon 

176 


THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  VIRGINIA 

the  state  to  continue  these  appropriations 
forever.  (4)  There  was  an  effort  to  move  Wil- 
liam and  Mary  College  from  Williamsburg  to 
Richmond,  as  a  direct  move  to  thwart  the 
efforts  of  the  friends  of  the  state  University. 
(5)  There  was  great  difference  of  opinion 
among  the  well-to-do  people  of  the  state  and 
the  growing  power  of  the  middle  class  as  to  the 
value  of  higher  education  to  the  state,  such  as 
they  proposed  in  the  curriculum  for  the  uni- 
versity. All  these  matters  came  up  in  one 
form  or  another,  in  the  debates  connected  with 
the  establishment  of  a  state  University ;  Jeffer- 
son combated  them  with  all  the  learning, 
wisdom,  and  forethought  of  his  masterful  mind. 
His  enemies  accused  him  of  meddling,  of  in- 
sincerity, of  infidelity,  and  an  effort  to  bring 
additional  burden  upon  the  state  by  adding 
to  the  already  heavy  tax  rate  for  a  thing  looked 
upon  by  them  as  a  highly  theoretical  scheme. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  university  had  its  birth 
in  the  midst  of  all  these  conflicting  forces, 
political,  economical,  social,  educational,  and 
religious. 

n  177 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

The  Establishment  of  the  University.  —  In 
February,  1818,  an  act  passed  by  the  General 
Assembly  appropriated  the  greater  amount  of 
the  proceeds  of  the  Literary  Fund  to  the 
primary  schools  of  the  poor,  and  gave  $15,000 
annually  to  the  endowment  and  support  of  a 
university  to  be  styled  "  The  University  of 
Virginia."  A  committee  was  appointed  to 
determine  the  site  and  general  plan  for  the 
institution  and  report  to  the  next  meeting  of 
the  General  Assembly.  Then  came  a  rivalry 
among  the  different  cities  and  towns  for  the 
location  of  the  institution.  Washington  and 
Lee  University  at  Lexington  was  a  strong  appli- 
cant for  the  place.  Staunton  had  its  supporters, 
but  Jefferson,  who  was  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee, and  to  whom  was  attributed  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  report  of  the  committee,  controlled 
matters,  and  it  was  decided  to  establish  the  uni- 
versity at  Charlottesville,  with  Central  College 
as  a  nucleus.  The  commission  was  composed 
of  the  following  leading  citizens  appointed 
by  the  government :  Thomas  Jefferson,  James 
Madison,  Creed  Taylor,  Peter  Randolph,  James 

178 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  VIRGINIA 

Breckenridge,  Archibald  Rutherford,  Archibald 
Stuart,  William  Brockenborough,  Henry  Wat- 
kins,  A.  T.  Mason,  Hugh  Holmes,  P.  C.  Pendle- 
ton, Spencer  Roane,  John  McTaylor,  J.  G. 
Jackson,  Phil  Slaughter,  William  H.  Cabell,  Na- 
thaniel Claiborne,  William  A.  C.  Dade,  William 
Jones,  Thomas  Wilson,  Nicholas  Falcon,  Peter 
Johnson,  and  Littleton  W.  Tazewell.  This  com- 
mittee met  on  August  1,  1818,  at  the  tavern 
near  the  top  of  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains  in 
Rockfish  Gap,  and  after  mature  deliberation 
they  adopted  a  full  report,  providing  that 
the  university  be  established  at  Charlottesville, 
"  Central  College,"  and  outlined  a  complete 
plan  for  the  administration  and  curriculum 
for  the  university.  The  following  are  excerpts 
from  the  report  of  recommendations  made  to 
the  General  Assembly  by  that  body. 

Excerpts  from  the  Report  of  the  Commis- 
sion. —  The  objects  of  primary  education  deter- 
mine its  character  and  limits.  These  objects 
would  be: 

(1)  To  give  every  citizen  the  information  he  needs  to 
transact  his  own  business. 

179 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

(2)  To  enable  him  to  calculate  for  himself  and  to  ex- 
press and  preserve  his  ideas,  contracts,  and  accounts  in 
writing. 

(3)  To  improve  by  reading  his  faculties  and  morals. 

(4)  To  understand  his  duties  to  his  neighbors  and  his 
country,  and  to  discharge  with  confidence  the  functions 
confided  to  him  by  either. 

(5)  To  know  his  rights.  To  exercise  with  order  and 
justice  those  he  retains;  to  choose  with  discretion  the 
fiduciary  of  those  he  delegates  and  to  notice  their  con- 
duct with  diligence,  candor,  and  judgment. 

(6)  And  in  general  to  observe  with  intelligence  and 
faithfulness  all  the  social  relations  [in  which]  he  shall  be 
placed. 

And  this  brings  us  to  the  point  where  com- 
mence the  higher  branches  of  education  which 
the  Legislature  required.     These  were  designed  : 

(1)  To  form  the  statesmen,  legislators,  and  judges  on 
whom  public  prosperity  and  individual  happiness  are  so 
much  to  depend. 

(2)  To  expound  the  principles  and  structure  of  gov- 
ernment, the  laws  which  regulate  the  intercourse  of 
nations,  those  formed  municipalities  for  our  own  govern- 
ment and  a  sound  spirit  of  legislation,  which,  banishing 
all  arbitrary  and  unnecessary  restraints  on  individual 
action,  leave  us  free  to  whatever  does  not  violate  the  equal 
rights  of  others. 

(3)  To  harmonize  and  promote  the  interests  of  agri- 
culture, manufactories,  and  commerce  and  by  well  in- 

180 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  VIRGINIA 

formed  views  of  political  economy,  to  give  a  free  scope  to 
the  public  industry. 

(4)  To  develop  the  reason  faculties  of  our  youth,  en- 
large their  minds,  cultivate  their  morals,  and  instill  into 
them  the  precepts  of  virtue  and  order. 

(5)  To  enlighten  them  with  mathematical  and  phys- 
ical sciences  which  advance  the  arts  and  administer  to 
the  health,  the  subsistence  and  the  comforts  of  human 
life;  and  generally  to  form  them  to  habits  of  reflection 
and  correct  action,  rendering  them  examples  of  virtue  to 
others  and  of  happiness  within  themselves. 

"  These  are  the  objects  of  that  higher  educa- 
tion, the  benefits  and  blessings  of  which  the 
Legislature  now  proposes  to  provide  for  the 
good  and  ornament  of  their  country,  the 
gratification  and  happiness  of  their  fellow  cit- 
izens, of  the  parent  especially  and  his  prog- 
eny, on  whom  all  of  his  affections  are  concen- 
trated." 

The  report  goes  on  into  a  rather  lengthy 
argument  for  the  practical  value  of  the  sciences, 
referring  to  the  fact  that  there  are  many  good 
people  who  do  not  believe  that  sciences  are  of 
any  use  to  men.  The  argument  closes  with 
the  following  statement  as  to  the  national 
benefits  of  education. 

181 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Nor  must  we  omit  to  mention  among  the  benefits  of 
education,  the  incalculable  advantage  of  training  up  the 
counsellors  to  administer  the  affairs  of  our  country  in  all 
its  departments,  legislative,  executive,  and  judiciary, 
and  to  bear  their  proper  share  in  the  counsels  of  our 
National  government.  Nothing  more  than  education 
advances  the  prosperity,  the  power  and  the  happiness  of  a 
nation. 

Outline  of  the  Curriculum.  —  "  We  present 
the  following  tabular  statement  of  the  branches 
of  learning  which  we  think  should  be  taught  in 
the  University,  forming  them  into  groups,  each 
of  which  are  within  the  power  of  a  single  pro- 
fessor " : 

1.  Ancient  languages,  —  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew. 

2.  Modern  languages,  —  French,  Spanish,  Italian, 
Anglo  Saxon. 

3.  Pure  Mathematics,  —  Algebra,  Flexions,  Geom- 
etry, Architecture,  Military  and  Naval  Science. 

4.  Physico  Mathematics,  (a)  Mechanics,  Statics,  Dy- 
namics, Pneumatics,  Acoustics,  Optics,  Astronomy,  and 
Geography. 

5.  Physico  Mathematics,  (6)  Physics,  Chemistry, 
Mineralogy. 

6.  Natural  Sciences,  —  Botany,  Zoology. 

7.  Natural  Science,  —  Anatomy  and  Medicine. 

8.  Science  of  Government  and  Politics,  —  Govern- 
ment, Political  Economy,  Laws  of  Nature  and  Nations. 

182 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  VIRGINIA 

9.   Science  of  Government,  —  Municipal  Law. 
10.   Idealogy,    General    Grammar,    Ethics,    Rhetoric, 
Belles  Lettres,  Fine  Arts.1 

The  report  of  the  Commission  closes  with  a 
discussion  of  some  other  important  matters. 

It  is  greatly  to  be  wished  that  the  preliminary  schools, 
either  on  public  or  private  foundations,  be  distributed 
throughout  the  state  as  preparatory  to  the  entrance  of 
students  into  the  University.  At  these  schools  a  boy 
should  be  rendered  able  to  read  easier  authors  in  Latin 
and  Greek  and,  too,  might  be  taught  English  grammar. 
The  higher  branches  of  numerical  arithmetic,  the  geom- 
etry of  straight  lines  and  circles,  and  the  elements  of 
navigation  and  geography  to  a  sufficient  degree. 

They  speak  of  gymnastics  as  a  necessary  part  of 
education  at  the  University,  also  the  use  of  tools,  and  the 
arts  that  embellish  life  as  dancing,  music,  and  drawing. 
No  provision  is  made  for  these  except  that  they  may  be 
taught  by  special  teachers,  the  students  paying  tuition 
for  this  instruction. 

We  have  proposed  no  professor  of  Divinity.  This 
will  be  within  the  province  of  the  professor  of  ethics. 

1  The  Analectic  Magazine,  published  in  Philadelphia  in  1819.  The 
editor  heads  the  report  of  the  commission  with  this  statement :  "  In  the 
following  paper,  our  readers  will  find  a  characteristic  trait  of  the  simplicity 
of  our  National  manners,  and  a  remarkable  instance  of  practical  Republi- 
canism. The  report  is  said  to  be  from  the  pen  of  Jefferson  and  contains 
many  new  suggestions  worth  the  attention  of  our  seminaries  of  learning 
already  established."     Vol.  XIII,  p.  103. 

183 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

We  have  thought  it  proper  at  this  point  to  leave  any 
sect  to  provide  as  they  think  fittest  the  means  of  further 
instruction  in  their  own  particular  tenets. 

This  report  is  all-inclusive  in  arguments  and 
complete  in  schemes  for  higher  education.  It 
has  the  stamp  of  Jefferson  upon  it.  But  this 
report  did  not  settle  the  matter  finally.  There 
was  a  strong  effort  on  the  part  of  some  members 
of  the  General  Assembly  to  defeat  the  bill  or 
at  least  change  the  site  to  either  Lexington  or 
Staunton,  but,  fortunately  for  the  university, 
the  bill  passed  January  1,  1819.  The  fate  of 
the  university  throughout  the  troublous  times 
was  in  the  hands  of  Jefferson  at  Monticello 
and  Cabell  in  the  Senate.  The  bill  provided 
that  the  immediate  control  of  the  univer- 
sity was  to  be  vested  in  a  rector  and  Board  of 
Visitors  composed  of  nine  men  appointed  by 
the  governor.  Their  immediate  task  was  to 
find  funds  to  erect  buildings  for  the  university 
and  to  employ  a  faculty  of  instructors.  These 
two  matters  were  left  almost  entirely  to 
Jefferson,  who  gave  his  personal  attention  to 
them. 

184 


THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  VIRGINIA 

The  Funds  for  the  University.  —  A  few  years 
before  the  Legislature  had  chartered  Central 
College,  which  had  been  organized  and  put  in 
readiness  for  college  work.  All  this  had  been 
done,  at  least  in  the  mind  of  Jefferson,  to  form 
the  nucleus  for  the  university.  All  the  lands 
and  rights  of  Central  College  were  transferred 
to  the  university.  The  funds  for  this  institu- 
tion were  $35,102  in  subscriptions,  $3195.86 
from  the  sale  of  glebe  lands  in  the  county  of 
Albemarle.  In  addition,  there  was  about  $8000 
available  from  other  sources,  making  a  total  of 
$46,000  or  $47,000  transferred  to  the  university.1 
The  annual  appropriation  from  the  Literary 
Fund  of  $15,000  made  up  the  funds  directly 
available  for  the  use  of  the  Board  of  Visitors. 
The  Visitors  petitioned  the  Legislature  from  year 
to  year  and  secured  either  additional  funds  or 
power  to  borrow  funds.  By  this  means  a  good 
amount  from  the  Literary  Fund 2  was  used 
in  the  erection  of  the  university  buildings  and 
for  the  employment  of  a  faculty  of  instructors. 

1  John  S.  Patton,  Jefferson,  Cabell,  and  the  University  of  Virginia, 
p.  40. 

2  About  $180,000  from  the  Literary  Fund  was  used  for  this  purpose. 

185 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

The  University  Buildings.  "On  the  5th  of  May,  1817, 
Mr.  Jefferson  presented  to  the  Board  of  Visitors  (Central 
College)  a  plan  for  erecting  a  distinct  pavilion  or  build- 
ing for  each  separate  professor  and  arranging  them  around 
a  square.  With  the  certainty  that  characterized  all  his 
purposes,  he  suggested,  and  the  Board  approved,  the 
drawing  of  parallel  lines  and  the  location  of  the  pavilions 
on  one  or  the  other  of  them.  In  time  one  of  these  lines 
became  East  Lawn  and  the  other  West  Lawn."  * 

The  proctor  was  empowered  with  the  funds 
in  hand  to  "  agree  with  proper  workmen " 
for  the  erection  of  the  first  pavilion.  The 
style  of  these  was  to  be  of  "  regular  architec- 
ture." Year  by  year,  as  funds  became  avail- 
able, the  pavilions  for  the  professors  and  dormi- 
tories for  the  students  were  completed.  October 
5, 1822,  Jefferson  writes : 

Ten  pavilions  are  almost  finished,  and  the  six  hotels, 
three  on  East  Street  and  three  on  West  Street,  will  be 
plastered  and  lathed  this  fall.  Ninety-seven  of  the  109 
dormitories  are  ready. 

Jefferson  gave  his  personal  supervision  to 
the  erection  of  the  "  Academic  Village"  he 
had  so  wisely  and  tastefully  planned.     He  had 

1  John  S.  Patton,  Jefferson,  Cabell,  and  the  University  of  Virginia, 
p.  177. 

186 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  VIRGINIA 

spent  many  years  in  European  capitals,  and 
had  made  drawings  of  many  of  the  public 
buildings  in  Rome  and  Paris,  and  with  this 
fund  of  information  he,  better  than  any  one 
else  in  America,  was  able  to  design  the  best 
architectural  form  for  an  institution  like  the 
university.1 

The  general  plan  of  the  buildings  is  a  series 
of  pavilions  or  professors'  homes,  ten  in  number, 
with  dormitories  for  students  between  these, 
with  a  Tuscan  colonnade  so  the  students  can 
pass  from  school  to  school  under  shelter.  On 
the  north  is  the  rotunda,  a  copy  of  the  Pantheon 
at  Rome,  where  the  library  is  housed.  On 
parallel  lines  to  these  buildings  on  the  lawn  are 
the  east  and  west  ranges.  These  are  made 
up  of  hotels  and  dormitories  with  covered  ways 
in  the  form  of  cloisteral  arcades,  the  whole 
architectural  scheme  making  one  of  the  most 
unique  architectural  erections  in  America. 
Jefferson   was   always   careful   to   preserve   his 

1  Marquis  de  Chastellux  says :  "  Mr.  Jefferson  is  the  first  American 
who  has  consulted  the  fine  arts  to  know  how  he  should  shelter  himself 
from  the  weather."  John  S.  Patton,  Jefferson,  Cabell,  and  the  Univer- 
sity of  Virginia,  p.  182. 

187 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

original  architectural  exterior.  He  did  not 
care  so  much  about  the  arrangement  of  the 
interior.  In  a  number  of  his  letters  Jefferson 
refers  to  the  fact  that  this  type  of  architecture, 
while  expensive,  was  necessary,  if  they  were  to 
be  able  to  induce  the  best  scholars  of  Europe 
to  become  professors  at  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia. Since  these  original  buildings,  others 
had  been  added :  the  University  Chapel,  the 
new  academic  buildings,  enclosing  the  quad- 
rangle on  the  south  (1897),  the  Brooks  Museum, 
Fairwether  Gymnasium,  and,  still  later,  Madi- 
son Hall,  the  home  of  the  University  Y.M.C.A., 
and  the  new  hospital  buildings  on  the  east, 
the  Commons,  a^  spacious  home  for  the  presi- 
dent, the  new  law  building,  and  the  Educational 
buildings. 

The  First  Faculty  of  the  University.  —  Here 
again  Jefferson's  wise  counsel  prevailed.  His 
wide  acquaintance  with  the  scholars  of  Europe 
and  America  made  him  eminently  fitted  to 
secure  the  sanest  assistance  in  the  important 
part  of  the  work  of  founding  a  university.  He 
was  familiar  with  the  scientific  movement  so 

188 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  VIRGINIA 

well  under  way  in  the  European  universities, 
and  saw  the  practical  possibility  of  this  new 
field  of  research.  This  movement,  in  its  more 
advanced  form,  had  not  yet  reached  America ; 
therefore,  it  was  not  likely  that  there  could  be 
found  in  this  country  a  sufficient  number  of 
scholars  to  take  up  the  work  of  instruction  in 
the  university.  Dr.  Cooper  of  Pennsylvania 
had  been  secured,  but  strong  opposition  to  him 
had  developed  among  the  church  people,  on 
account  of  his  radical  views  on  ethical  and 
religious  matters.  Mr.  Bowditch  of  Boston 
and  Mr.  Tickner  of  Salem  were  offered  places 
on  the  faculty,  but  fehey  declined.  Then  came 
a  great  hunt  for  scholars  in  Europe.  Mr. 
Francis  W.  Gilmore  was  sent  to  Europe  on  the 
mission  of  securing  suitable  scholars  for  the 
faculty  of  the  University  of  Virginia.  In  March 
of  the  next  year,  1825,  we  find  the  following 
professors  domiciled  at  the  University,  ready 
for  work: 

Ancient  Languages  :  Professor  George  Long, 

Modern  Languages  :,  Professor  George  Blat- 

termann, 
189 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Mathematics  :  Professor  Hewitt  Key, 

Natural  Philosophy  :  Professor  Charles  Bonny- 

castle, 
Anatomy  and  Medicine  :  Professor  Robley  Dungle- 

son. 

The  American  members  were  Mr.  Henry  St. 
George  Tucker,  professor  of  Law,  and  Dr.  John 
Patton  Emmett,  professor  of  Natural  History. 
Mr.  Tucker  was  elected  the  first  chairman  of 
the  faculty. 

Scheme  of  Government  for  the  University.  — 
The  Board  of  Visitors  committed  the  admin- 
istration of  the  affairs  of  the  university  to  the 
faculty,  organized  with  the  chairman  as  the 
chief  executive  officer.  There  were  subordi- 
nate officials  with  distinct  and  prescribed 
duties.  These  were  proctor,  patron,  bursar, 
hotel  keeper,  and  janitor.  Jefferson  had  laid 
down  some  standards  in  the  Rockfish  Gap 
Commission's  report  concerning  the  "  govern- 
ment of  the  young  in  large  collections."  Speak- 
ing of  fear  as  a  motive  for  right  conduct,  he 
says: 

The  human  character  is  susceptible  of  other  incite- 
ments to  correct  conduct  more  worthy  of  employ  and  of 

190 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  VIRGINIA 

better  effect.  Pride  of  character,  laudable  ambition,  and 
moral  disposition  are  innate  correctives  of  the  indiscre- 
tions of  that  lively  age.  .  .  .  Hardening  them  to  dis- 
grace, corporal  punishment,  and  servile  humiliations  can- 
not be  the  process  for  producing  erect  character."  * 

But  these  ideals  evidently  did  not  prevail 
after  the  death  of  Jefferson  in  1826,  for  in  1828 
students  in  matriculating  at  the  University 
were  required  to  subscribe  to  an  eight-page 
(printed)  document  filled  with  prohibitions, 
inhibitions,  and  penalties.2  On  several  occa- 
sions the  students  rebelled  against  these  rules, 
and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  matters  were 
brought  to  a  satisfactory  adjustment.3  The 
fact  that  so  many  members  of  the  faculty 
were  foreigners  and  did  not  understand  the 
social  customs  of  southern  people  had  no 
little  to  do  with  the  antagonism  existing  be- 
tween the  student  body  and  the  faculty.  Out 
of  the  spirit  of   these    times    germinated    the 

1  John  S.  Patton,  Jefferson,  Cabell,  and  the  University  of  Virginia, 
p.  120. 

2  No  student  could  appear  in  class  room  with  a  stick  or  weapon. 
Snuffing  tobacco,  chewing,  and  smoking  were  prohibited.  Public  dinners 
were  forbidden,  and  so  on. 

3  In  the  "  Riot  of  1834,"  Professor  Davis  was  shot. 

191 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Honor  System  so  famous  in  connection  with 
the  University  of  Virginia.  None  can  say  just 
when  the  system  was  instituted.  On  July 
2,  1842,  Professor  Henry  St.  George  Tucker 
offered,  and  the  faculty  adopted,  the  following 
resolution : 

Resolved,  That  in  all  future  examinations  for  dis- 
tinction and  other  honors  of  the  University,  each  candi- 
date shall  attach  to  the  written  answers  presented  by 
him  on  such  examination  a  certificate  in  the  following 
words :  "I,  A.  B.,  do  hereby  certify  on  honor,  that  I  have 
derived  no  assistance  during  the  time  of  this  examina- 
tion from  any  source  whatever,  whether  oral  or  written, 
or  in  print,  in  giving  the  above  answers."  l 

This  spirit  has  developed  into  a  sort  of 
chivalry  which  goes  beyond  the  mere  matter 
of  cheating  on  examinations  and  has  crystal- 
lized into  a  public  sentiment  which  has  regard 
for  manliness  and  the  honorable  instincts  of  a 
gentleman.2  This  spirit  has  characterized  the 
University  of  Virginia  for  a  century  and  is  unique 
among  American  colleges  and  universities. 

1  John  S.  Patton  —  Jefferson,  Cabell,  and  the  University  of  Virginia, 
p.  174  —  says  the  honor  system  germinated  long  before  this. 

2  John  S.  Patton  —  Jefferson,  Cabell,  and  the  University  of  Virginia, 
p.  176  — says :  "In  such  an  atmosphere,  hazing  has  never  occurred." 

192 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OP  VIRGINIA 

The  Cardinal  Principles  of  the.  University 
of  Virginia.  —  The  political  philosophy  of  Jeffer- 
son may  be  recognized  in  everything  his  hands 
touched.  The  following  cardinal  features  have 
always  been  the  fundamental  policies  of  the 
university : 

1.  Freedom  of  teaching  in  independent  elective  schools. 

2.  Freedom  of  study,  —  student  selects  his  own  tickets. 

3.  The  Honor  System,  —  no  espionage,  freedom  of  con- 
duct under  obligation  of  observing  the  laws  of  the  state. 

4.  Proficiency  in  intermediate  and  final  examinations, 
—  not  class  attendance,  not  daily  examinations  nor  time 
spent,  nor  degrees  attained  elsewhere. 

5 .  No  graduation  in  a  degree ;  all  "  cum  laude  "  or  none. 

6.  No  honorary  degrees  conferred. 

7.  Degrees  to  bear  English  not  Latin  names. 

8.  No  records,  no  college  honors  except  a  certificate  of 
having  passed  the  examination  in  a  school  or  in  a  number 
of  schools. 

9.   No  compulsory  attendance  on  prayers  or  services. 
10.   Each  denomination  to  send  a  clergy  to  conduct 
daily  prayers  and  Sunday  service  for  two  weeks.1 

The  Service  and  Influence  of  the  Univer- 
sity. —  Probably  no  other  institution  of  learn- 
ing has  wielded  a  more  definite  influence  in 
higher  education  in  the  South  than  the  Uni- 

1  Pamphlet,  University  Regulations. 
o  193 


HISTORY  OP  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

versity  of  Virginia.  Its  student  body  was  made 
up  of  men  from  every  section  of  the  country,  but 
more  particularly  did  they  come  from  the  South 
and  West.  Upon  the  schools  and  colleges 
established  in  the  South  after  the  40's  one  can 
detect  the  University  of  Virginia  stamp.  In 
form  of  administration  and  standards  of  schol- 
arship, methods  of  instruction  and  other  fun- 
damental policies,  the  University  of  Virginia 
has  been  the  model.  In  the  profession  of  law 
and  medicine  she  has  sent  a  host  of  graduates 
into  every  part  of  the  South  and  Southwest. 
She  claims  to  be  unique  in  the  number  of  her 
sons  in  the  service  of  the  national  government, 
particularly  in  the  navy  and  in  the  legislative 
and  judiciary  departments.  In  this  regard 
Jefferson's  idealism,  as  expressed  in  the  report 
of  the  Rockfish  Gap  Commission,  saw  its  com- 
plete realization. 

The  Great  Fire  of  1895.  —  The  Annex  and 
the  Rotunda  were  burned  on  Sunday,  October 
27,  1895.  The  Annex,  containing  laboratories, 
class  rooms,  and  the  auditorium,  in  which  hung 
the  famous  painting,  the  "  School  of  Athens," 

194 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  VIRGINIA 

were  totally  destroyed.  The  walls  of  the 
Rotunda  remained  standing,  but  valuable  books 
in  the  library  went  up  in  the  flames.  Volumes 
which  can  never  be  replaced  were  lost, 
was  a  great  calamity  to  the  university,  but 
friends  of  the  institution  responded  to  its  needs, 
and  in  a  few  years  the  university  aros^C  more 
resplendent  in  architectural  design.  The  Ro- 
tunda was  remodelled  and  new  buildings  added, 
until  to-day  the  university  is  more  beautiful 
from  an  architectural  standpoint  than  ever 
before  in  its  history. 

A  New  Era  for  the  University.  —  "When  the 
University  was  established  there  was  no  insti- 
tution in  the  world  that  closely  resembled  it. 
The  University  of  Virginia  came  from  the  brain 
of  one  man  and  that  man's  purpose  in  education 
was  the  new  one  to  safeguard  the  liberties  of  his 
country  by  increasing  the  moral  and  intellectual 
stature  of  the  citizens.  In  many  respects,  a  great 
chasm  separated  it  from  Harvard,  Princeton,  and 
other  dominant  institutions  of  eighty  years  ago." l 

1  John  S.  Patton,  Jefferson,  Cabell,  and  the  University  of  Virginia, 
p.  346. 

195 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

To-day  that  difference  is  not  so  great,  but 
the  old  ideals  continue  vital  under  a  somewhat 
new  regime.  In  recent  years  there  have  been 
some  important  changes. 

(1)  Faculty  government  through  a  chairman 
has  been  abandoned,  and  a  president  has  been 
elected.  Edwin  Anderson  Alderman,  an  edu- 
cator of  wide  experience,  was  chosen  to  the  first 
presidency  on  June  14,  1904,  and  his  administra- 
tion is  now  in  full  progress.  The  question  of  a 
president  for  the  university  came  up  a  number  of 
times,  particularly  in  1846,  and  in  1897,  among 
the  members  of  the  Board  of  Visitors,  but  a 
strong  conservatism  among  the  alumni  and  some 
members  of  the  faculty  delayed  definite  action 
for  a  number  of  years. 

(2)  These  changes  in  the  executive  affairs 
naturally  led  to  some  other  consequent  changes. 
These  have  all  been  made  with  profound  rever- 
ence for  the  past  but  with  the  belief  in  the  wise 
pre-occupation  of  those  who  control  educational 
affairs  in  the  present  and  the  future.  The  old 
Jeffersonian  system  of  independent  schools  in 
which  the  professor  was  absolutely  free  to  control 

196 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  VIRGINIA 

in  his  own  way  the  affairs  in  his  particular  field 
of  instruction  gave  place  to  a  new  scheme  in 
which  the  relationship  between  the  president, 
the  professor,  and  the  faculty  has  been  adjusted 
so  as  to  result  in  greater  unity  and  coordination 
in  the  various  departments,  but  in  no  essential 
diminution  of  the  freedom  of  teaching. 

(3)  There  has  ensued  a  logical  reorganization 
of  the  whole  institution  wherein  its  various 
schools  and  departments  have  been  more  clearly 
outlined  and  their  educational  and  administra- 
tive functions  definitely  extended  and  defined. 
The  line  of  separation  between  the  college  and 
the  university  is  now  sharply  drawn.  The 
graduate  school  and  the  professional  schools 
of  law,  medicine,  engineering  have  found  their 
places.  The  requirements  for  admission  and 
graduation  have  been  brought  into  closer  relation 
to  the  standards  of  the  educational  world  of 
to-day,  and  so  ordered  as  to  result  not  only  in 
juster  articulation  to  the  secondary  schools,  but 
also  in  more  perfect  relation  to  the  demands 
made  upon  educated  men  by  the  modern  world. 

(4)  This  has  resulted  in  a  closer  and  more 

197 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

helpful  union  between  the  university  and  the 
secondary  schools,  and  thus  bound  together 
the  whole  system  in  cooperative  ties. 

(5)  An  enormous  expansion  of  inward  power 
and  scope  has  come  about,  manifested  by  an 
increase  in  teaching  staff  of  100  per  cent,  of 
income  of  over  100  per  cent,  of  the  value  in  new 
buildings  and  laboratories  of  25  per  cent,  and  in 
student  attendance  of  60  per  cent. 

(6)  Increased  ability  and  purpose  to  reach 
and  serve  the  advancing  democratic  life  of  the 
people  without  as  well  as  within  university  walls 
has  come  about,  testified  to  by  the  establishment 
of  great  new  departments  like  the  university 
hospital,  the  summer  school,  the  department  of 
education,  the  school  of  economic  geology,  the 
school  of  forestry,  university  extension  service. 

(7)  Emphasis  upon  the  dignity  and  necessity 
of  social  service  as  the  final  aim  of  educated 
manhood  has  been  added  to  the  older  and 
eternal  concept  of  integrity,  individualism,  and 
personal  attainment. 


198 


CHAPTER  XI 

STATE   INSTITUTIONS   FOR  HIGHER   LEARNING 

{Continued) 
State  Schools  of  Technology 

Virginia  Military  Institute  (1839).  —  So  many 
of  the  features  of  the  University  of  Virginia  were 
in  new  and  untried  fields  of  education,  but 
Jefferson  pointed  out  other  fields  which  the  uni- 
versity had  not  occupied.  Some  of  these  were 
the  fields  which  have  since  been  covered  by  mili- 
tary academies,  technological  schools,  and  the 
agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges  which  have 
developed  in  the  last  decade  or  more.  The 
Scotch-Irish  people  felt  more  keenly  probably 
than  any  other  people  the  meaning  of  liberty 
and  individual  rights,  and  took  part  in  all  the 
movements  that  have  resulted  in  the  basal  poli- 
cies of  the  American  government.  They  were 
always  ready  to  take  up  arms,  if  necessary,  for  the 
protection  of  these  rights.  Lexington,  Virginia, 
was  one  of  the  strongest  centres  of  this  Scotch- 

199 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Irish  population  in  the  state.  Very  early  in  the 
history  of  the  state  Lexington  was  made  one  of 
the  points  for  storing  arms  and  munitions  of  war 
for  the  convenience  of  the  citizens  west  of  the 
mountains.  A  small  brick  building  was  erected 
for  this  purpose,  and  at  times  soldiers  were  sta- 
tioned there  to  guard  the  arsenal.  All  this  was 
taken  as  a  matter  of  course  for  many  years,  but 
one  night  the  question  of  converting  this  muni- 
tion depot  into  a  state  military  school  became 
the  subject  of  discussion  in  a  meeting  of  the 
Franklin  Literary  Society  in  Lexington  (1834) 
and  resulted  in  the  state  becoming  interested  in 
the  proposition,  through  the  friends  of  John  T.  L. 
Preston,  and,  in  the  year  1839,  the  state  Legis- 
lature passed  an  act  founding  a  state  military 
school  on  the  plan  of  the  military  academy  at 
West  Point.  Appropriations  for  the  necessary 
buildings  were  made,  three  professors  appointed, 
and  the  school  started  off  with  seventeen  cadets 
answering  to  the  first  roll  call.  At  first  the 
Legislature  contemplated  the  organization  of  the 
school  as  a  department  of  Washington  College, 
but  in  1839  repealed  that  part  of  the  act  and 

200 


STATE  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  HIGHER  LEARNING 

gave  the  school  an  independent  organization.1 
Captain  Crozet,  who  had  given  up  a  professor- 
ship in  West  Point  Military  Academy,  and  who 
was  now  the  state  engineer  of  Virginia  in  charge 
of  the  construction  of  the  lock-and-dam  system 
of  improvement  of  the  James  River,  became  in- 
terested in  the  idea  of  a  military  school,  and  to 
him  is  due  much  of  the  credit  for  the  original 
scheme  of  organization  and  development  of  the 
institution.  The  school  took  on  a  thorough 
military  character  from  the  outset.  Captain 
Crozet  was  the  chairman  of  the  first  Board  of 
Visitors.  The  school  has  always  been  technical 
in  its  tendencies,  giving  emphasis  to  the  subjects 
of  applied  mathematics,  such  as  engineering  in 
all  its  aspects,  with  such  accompanying  courses 
in  history,  English,  and  the  modern  languages 
as  to  give  a  liberalizing  effect  upon  the  student. 
Strong  emphasis  is  given  to  the  study  of  military 
science  and  the  art  of  war. 

The  V.  M.  I.  a  Normal  School.  —  In  the  40's, 
when  there  was  felt  a  strong  need  for  trained 

1  See  "Military  History  of  Virginia  Military  Institute,"  by  Jennings 
C.  Wise,  p.  34. 

201 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

teachers  in  the  public  schools,  an  effort  was  made 
to  use  the  state  school  as  a  place  to  train 
teachers.  Accordingly,  the  Legislature  passed  an 
act  (1844),  providing  that  sixty  state  students 
should  be  educated  there,  free  of  charge,  on  the 
obligation  that  they  teach  in  the  public  schools 
for  two  years.  The  same  rule  applied  to  the 
University  of  Virginia,  and  the  denominational 
college  sought  appropriations  from  the  Literary 
Fund  for  the  same  purpose.  The  institution 
has  always  maintained  the  highest  ideals  of  the 
soldier.  Manly  character,  courage,  self-control, 
faithfulness,  and  patriotism  are  some  of  the  vir- 
tues inculcated.  The  school  has  always  been  in 
favor  in  the  state.  The  record  made  during 
the  Civil  War,  when  the  students  marched  away 
to  war  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  New  Mar- 
ket, where  they  exhibited  bravery  and  skill  in  the 
art  of  war,  gave  the  institution  fame  which 
reached  far  beyond  the  borders  of  Virginia. 
The  buildings  were  burned  by  the  northern 
army  (1864),  but  they  were  restored  soon  after- 
wards and  the  school  reorganized  and  devel- 
oped along  the  lines  the  Board  of  Visitors  had  so 

202 


STATE  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  HIGHER  LEARNING 

wisely  planned  for  it.  The  fame  of  so  many 
of  its  alumni  in  the  service  of  the  Confederate 
Army,  and  particularly  the  striking  military 
record  of  one  of  the  members  of  its  faculty, 
Gen.  T.  J.  Jackson,  and  the  record  of  the  cadets 
of  the  institute  at  the  battle  of  New  Market, 
brought  the  school  into  prominence,  so  that 
after  the  war  the  youth  of  the  South  flocked  to 
the  school,  and  since  then  its  patronage  has  not 
been  confined  to  Virginia,  but  students  from 
every  section  of  the  South  have  sought  entrance 
to  its  halls.  In  1872  there  were  230  cadets  in 
attendance  from  other  states.  The  affairs  of 
the  Institute  had  been  so  ably  managed  that  the 
school  has  never  cost  the  state  very  much  be- 
yond the  $1500  annuity  coming  from  that 
source.  The  school  has  prospered  under  the 
two  motives  that  have  guided  its  activities: 

(1)  To  educate  officers  for  service  in  our  armies. 

(2)  To  impart  general  knowledge  to  the  youth  of  our 
country. 

The  last  Congress  of  the  United  States  (1914) 
reimbursed  the  institute  for  its  destruction 
during    the    war,    which    amount    ($100,000), 

203 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

will  enable  the  school  to  enlarge  its  usefulness 
and  serve  the  state  more  effectively  than  it 
has  done  in  the  past,  and  in  larger  numbers 
than  ever  this  school  will  send  out  efficient 
workers  into  the  fields  of  teaching,  engineering, 
and  practical  business. 

The  Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute  (1872). — 
The  Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute  belongs  to 
the  type  of  technical  schools  established  by  the 
gifts  from  the  United  States  government  in 
land  scrip.  The  Legislature  of  Virginia  passed 
an  act  in  March,  1872,  distributing  this  grant: 
one-third  to  Hampton  Normal  for  colored  people, 
and  two-thirds  to  be  used  in  the  establishing 
of  the  Virginia  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College  l  to  be  located  in  Montgomery  County. 
The  property  of  Preston  and  Olin  Institute  was 
transferred  to  the  Board  of  Visitors  of  the  new 
college  without  cost.  The  County  of  Mont- 
gomery gave  $20,000  in  addition  to  the  prop- 

1  There  was  a  wild  scramble  before  the  Legislature  by  the  various 
colleges,  University  of  Virginia,  V.  M.  I.,  Hampden-Sidney,  Randolph- 
Macon,  Emory  and  Henry,  Roanoke  College,  William  and  Mary, 
Richmond  College,  and  the  Shenandoah  Polytechnic  Institute  at  New 
Market  for  a  part  of  this  scrip. 

204 


STATE  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  HIGHER  LEARNING 

erty  of  the  Institute.  The  Visitors  purchased 
the  farm  of  Col.  Robt.  C.  Preston,  containing 
250  acres  of  valuable  land.  With  the  lands 
transferred  by  the  Preston  and  Olin  Institute,  it 
made  the  total  acreage  300.  The  report  of  the 
Committee  of  Visitors  is  an  exhaustive  state- 
ment as  to  the  kind  of  school  needed  at  Blacks- 
burg.  It  quotes  authorities  on  the  subject  of 
technical  education.  It  describes  in  detail  the 
type  of  training  as  carried  on  in  Prussia,  Switzer- 
land, Austria,  and  France,  and  gives  the  status 
of  technical  and  agricultural  education  in 
America.  The  kind  of  training  to  be  given  un- 
der the  Federal  Act  was  definitely  set  fortji  in 
the  report.  First,  it  was  to  be  a  school  where 
such  "  branches  as  are  related  to  agriculture 
and  the  mechanic  arts  shall  be  taught  in  such 
manner  as  the  State  Legislature  shall  provide." 
The  Industrial  Feature.  —  It  was  to  be  a 
school  for  the  industrial  classes.  Farmers  and 
mechanics  constitute  the  great  bulk  of  popula- 
tion in  Virginia.  It  was  estimated  at  that  time 
(1872)  that  there  were  125,000  farmers  and 
mechanics   in   the  state.     These  figures    show 

205 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

where  lie  the  great  fields  for  technical  and  agri- 
cultural education.  In  August,  1872,  the  Board 
of  Visitors  elected  Charles  L.  C.  Minor  the  first 
president  of  the  institution,  and  three  professors, 
one  each  in  English,  natural  philosophy  and 
chemistry,  technical  agriculture  and  mechanics. 
Natural  history  and  farm  management  were  to 
be  added  in  February.  It  was  the  plan  that  the 
students  should  engage  in  "  manual  labor  "  as 
a  part  of  the  work  of  the  school.  The  students 
who  matriculated  the  first  years  of  the  institu- 
tion's history  were  poorly  prepared  for  the  tech- 
nical work  planned,  so  it  was  necessary  to  offer 
high  school  and  even  grammar  school  courses.1 
Later  Developments.  —  Military  training  has 
always  been  a  feature  in  this  institution.  In 
1888  the  college  reported  110  students  and  eight 
professors.  General  L.  L.  Lomax  was  president 
then.  In  1890  Dr.  J.  M.  McBryde  was  called 
to  the  presidency  of  the  college,  and  the  school 
was  reorganized.  It  gained  in  the  number  of 
students  and  in  efficiency,  and  in  a  few  years 
came  to  be  a  great  agricultural  and  industrial 

1  Statement  of  President  Minor  in  the  Ruffner  Report,  1873,  p.  123. 

206 


STATE  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  HIGHER  LEARNING 

school.  The  state  made  the  necessary  appro- 
priation to  develop  an  efficient  plant  and  equip- 
ment, so  that  by  1895  there  were  400  students 
in  attendance,  by  which  time  the  name  of  the 
school  was  changed  to  The  Virginia  Polytechnic 
Institute.  It  was  giving  full  courses  in  agri- 
culture, the  mechanic  arts,  foreign  languages, 
economics,  and  history,  and  the  applied  sciences 
and  mathematics.  In  1905  Dr.  Paul  Barringer 
of  the  University  of  Virginia  was  called  to  the 
head  of  the  institute,  and  under  his  management 
the  school  added  many  new  practical  courses. 
The  attendance  increased  and  the  school  flour- 
ished. In  1913  J.  D.  Eggleston,  former  state 
superintendent,  was  elected  to  the  presidency 
of  the  school.  A  great  impetus  has  been  given 
to  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  last  few 
years,  and  the  school  more  nearly  fulfils  its  origi- 
nal purpose  than  ever  before. 

General  Summary.  —  It  will  be  seen  from  the 
three  institutions  just  described  that  the  state 
has  exercised  a  constructive  interest  in  higher 
education  on  three  main  lines,  professional, 
military,  and  technical.     The  University  of  Vir- 

207 


>       HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

ginia  at  Charlottesville  provides  higher  training 
in  academic  lines,  law,  and  medicine.  The 
Virginia  Military  Institute  at  Lexington  pro- 
vides military  training  and  kindred  technical 
instruction,  and  the  Virginia  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute at  Blacksburg,  agricultural  and  general 
mechanical  training.  In  each  of  these  schools 
efforts  were  made  to  meet  the  needs  for  the 
training  of  teachers,  but  this  function  was  not 
met  in  a  satisfactory  way  by  these  schools,  so 
the  state  at  a  later  period  established  state 
normal  schools  in  various  parts  of  the  state  to 
meet  the  need  connected  with  the  more  efficient 
conduct  of  the  public  school  system.  Xhe  de- 
nominational colleges  continue  to  furnish  train- 
ing in  a  liberal  education  under  distinct  Christian 
influences  and  instruction  in  general  theology 
and  denominational  creeds.  The  statute  of  re- 
ligious freedom,  fathered  by  Thomas  Jefferson 
and  passed  by  the  General  Assembly  in  1786, 
laid  down  a  policy  of  state  institutions  of  higher 
learning,  which  left  out  of  account  the  teaching 
of  religion  in  the  state  schools.  Training  in 
this  line  was  amply  provided  for  in  the  church 

208 


STATE  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  HIGHER  LEARNING 

colleges  representing  the  various  denominations. 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  last  two  chapters  that  the 
people  of  Virginia  provided  amply  for  the  higher 
education  of  their  youth. 

The  United  States  census  of  1850  gives  the 
following  table  which  shows  that  Virginia  had 
more  young  men  in  her  higher  institutions  of 
learning  than  any  of  the  other  states: 

♦ 
Comparative  Number  of  Young  Men  in  College 
in  1850 

-White  Total 

Population  Population 

Pennsylvania        1  to  2011  1  to  2110 

New  York 1  to  1773  1  to  1790 

Connecticut 1  to   1529  1  to  1630 

Massachusetts 1  to   1588  1  to  1615 

Ohio 1  to  1521  1  to  1557 

Virginia 1  to     722  1  to  1233 


209 


CHAPTER  XII 

A   STATE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL  SYSTEM   INAUGURATED 

1869 

Social  and  Economic  Conditions.  —  The  pro- 
visions for  public  education  which  the  Legisla- 
ture had  made  in  1818  and  the  subsequent  acts 
regarding  the  establishment  of  primary  schools 
in  the  state  did  not  provide  an  effective  system 
of  education  for  all  the  children.  This  plan  did 
not  include  at  all  the  colored  portion  of  the  popu- 
lation, so  recently  freed  from  the  condition  of 
slavery.  The  colored  population  at  this  time 
composed  two-thirds  of  the  total  population  of 
the  state,  and,  too,  the  system  of  education  in 
operation  previous  to  the  Civil  War  did  not 
reach  more  than  half  the  white  children  in  the 
state.  The  "  poor,"  for  whom  the  schools  were 
primarily  intended,  for  reasons  of  prejudice  con- 
nected with  the  idea  of  being  placed  in  the 
position  of  a  charge  on  the  state,  were  loath  to 

210 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

send  their  children  to  these  schools,  and  the 
well-to-do  refused  to  patronize  them  for  the 
reason  that  they  were  intended  for  the  "  in- 
digent "  and  not  for  those  who  were  able  to  pro- 
vide by  private  means  for  the  education  of  their 
children.  This  was  not  a  social  order  in  which 
a  wholesome  and  vigorous  system  of  public  edu- 
cation could  thrive.  It  was  necessary  for  these 
conditions  to  change  before  a  system  of  public 
education  could  take  root  and  become  effective 
in  a  society  such  as  obtained  in  Virginia. 

In  the  midst  of  all  this  came  the  Civil  War, 
with  all  its  deadening  and  blighting  effect  upon 
the  political,  social,  and  industrial  conditions  of 
the  whole  South,  and  Virginia,  more  than  any  of 
the  other  southern  states,  felt  the  awful  results 
of  this  conflict.  Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  in  his  "  His- 
tory of  the  Peabody  Education  Fund,"  makes 
this  significant  statement  regarding  these  con- 
ditions : 

At  the  origin  of  the  Peabody  Education  Fund  in  1866, 
not  a  single  southern  state  within  the  field  of  its  opera- 
tion had  a  system  of  free  public  schools  and  only  in 
a  few  cities  were  any  such  schools  to  be  found.  No  state 
organization  existed  through  which  this  fund  could  reach 

211 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

the  people.  The  illiteracy  of  the  inhabitants  was  appall- 
ing and  by  no  means  was  confined  to  the  "freedmen" 
but  included  a  large  per  cent  of  the  white  population. 
The  Legislatures  of  these  states  during  the  period  of  re- 
construction, largely  under  the  influence  of  members 
from  the  northern  states,  where  the  common  schools  had 
been  for  years  a  recognized  institution  and  of  colored 
representatives  who  were  filled  with  the  laudable  am- 
bition for  the  schooling  of  the  children  of  their  own  people, 
had  laid  out  a  work  entirely  and  sometimes  absurdly 
beyond  their  people  to  sustain,  for  the  support  of  this 
scheme  was  to  fall  upon  the  native  white  people,  who  held 
ninety  per  cent  of  the  remaining  property  of  these  Com- 
monwealths. During  the  war  and  the  five  years  follow- 
ing, 1860-1870,  the  property  values  of  these  states  had 
diminished  to  the  extent  of  two  billion  dollars.  There 
were  in  the  ex-Confederate  States  two  million  children 
and  youth  within  the  years  of  instruction.  In  the  effort 
to  organize  and  put  in  successful  operation  a  new  and 
untried  system  of  public  schools  adequate  to  the  needs  of 
the  entire  population,  the  southern  states,  were  under  a 
weight  of  debt  beyond  their  ability  in  their  impoverished 
condition  to  pay.  To  add  the  expense  of  free  education 
to  this  crushing  weight  was  in  their  financial  condition  a 
perplexing  and  almost  impossible  task.  Free  schooling 
was  a  new  question  introduced  and  to  be  administered 
by  novices  in  this  work.  To  organize  the  freedom  and 
equality  of  citizenship  of  a  large  class,  lately  the  slaves 
of  the  white  people,  was  not  easy,  because  in  conflict 
with  the  traditions,  prejudices,  social  customs,  and  legal 
rights  of  a  few  years  preceding.     To  impose  voluntary, 

212 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

heavy  burdens  on  the  scant  property  which  survived  the 
demoralization  of  the  war,  so  as  to  educate  gratuitously 
their  own  children  and  the  children  of  the  late  African 
slaves  was  a  task  of  patriotism,  of  humanity,  of  civic 
duty  which  no  people  ever  encountered. 

Virginia  was  the  social  and  educational  leader 
in  the  eleven  commonwealths  which  had  seceded, 
and  the  close  of  the  war  found  all  of  her  social 
order  and  industrial  institutions  in  the  state  of 
collapse.  She  had  been  shorn  of  an  important 
section  of  her  own  area  in  the  organization  of 
the  new  state  of  West  Virginia.  The  remain- 
ing section  east  of  the  Alleghanies  had  been  a 
battleground  for  four  terrible  years. 

The  census  of  1860  gave  the  number  of  people 
in  colleges,  academies,  and  public  schools  in 
Virginia  as  67,024,  which  was  more  than  nine 
and  one  half  per  cent  of  the  white  population 
and  five  and  one  half  per  cent  of  the  entire 
population  of  the  state.  From  1850  to  1860 
there  had  been  a  gain  of  about  two  thousand 
upon  the  illiteracy  of  the  white  people,  but  in 
1870  white  illiteracy  had  increased  from  48,912 
in  1860  to  67,997.    Besides  207,505  of  the  colored 

213 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

f reedmen,  nearly  twenty-two  per  cent  of  the  pop- 
ulation of  Virginia,  were  unable  to  read  and 
write.  These  were  the  conditions  in  Virginia 
under  which  the  public  free  school  system  was 
inaugurated. 

The  new  constitution  which  contains  the 
first  provision  for  a  complete  system  of  public 
education  in  Virginia  was  adopted  July  6,  1869. 
The  act  of  Congress  by  which  Virginia  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  in  1870  provided  that 

The  Constitution  of  Virginia  shall  never  be  so  amended 
or  changed  as  to  deprive  any  citizen  or  class  of  citizens 
of  the  United  States  of  the  school  rights  and  privileges 
secured  by  the  Constitution  of  the  said  State. 

The  Convention  which  framed  the  constitu- 
tion containing  these  educational  provisions 
convened  December  3,  1867,  and  was  composed 
of  105  members.  There  were  in  this  body  33 
conservatives  and  72  radicals,  24  of  whom 
were  negroes.  Besides  the  negroes,  the  radical 
delegates  were:  14  Virginians,  14  from  New 
York,  3  each  from  Pennsylvania,  Massachusetts, 
and  England,  1  each  from  Maine,  Vermont,  Con- 
necticut,  New   Jersey,   Maryland,  Washington 

214 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

City,  South  Carolina,  Ireland,  Scotland,  and 
Canada.1  To  this  cosmopolitan  assembly  Vir- 
ginia owes  the  constitutional  provision  for  the 
establishment  of  the  first  state-wide  school  sys- 
tem. Thus,  after  an  agitation  of  nearly  a  cen- 
tury, the  educational  scheme  of  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son, in  modified  form,  was  made  into  law.  The 
educational  provision  for  the  public  school  in 
the  fundamental  law  is  as  follows: 

Constitutional  Provision  for  Education.  —  (1)  The 
general  assembly  shall  elect  in  joint  ballot  within  thirty 
days  after  its  organization  under  this  constitution,  and 
every  fourth  year  thereafter,  a  superintendent  of  public 
instruction.  He  shall  have  the  general  supervision  of  the 
public  free  school  interests  of  the  State,  and  shall  report 
to  the  general  assembly  for  its  consideration,  within 
thirty  days  after  his  election,  a  plan  for  a  uniform  system 
of  public  free  schools. 

(2)  There  shall  be  a  board  of  education,  composed  of 
the  governor,  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and 
attorney-general,  which  shall  appoint  and  have  power  to 
remove  for  cause  and  upon  notice  to  the  incumbents, 
subject  to  confirmation  by  the  senate,  all  county  super- 
intendents of  public  schools.  This  board  shall  have, 
regulated  by  law,  the  management  and  investment  of  all 

1  See  South  Atlantic  Quarterly,  Vol.  XV,  January,  1916,  p.  27,  Edgar 
W.  Knight. 

215 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

school  funds,  and  such  supervision  of  higher  grades  as 
the  law  shall  provide. 

(3)  The  general  assembly  shall  provide  by  law  at  its 
first  session  under  this  constitution  a  uniform  system  of 
public  free  schools,  and  for  its  gradual,  equal,  and  full 
introduction  into  all  the  counties  of  the  State  by  the 
year  1876,  or  as  much  earlier  as  practicable. 

(4)  The  general  assembly  shall  have  power,  after  a  full 
introduction  of  the  public  free  school  system,  to  make 
such  laws  as  shall  not  permit  parents  and  guardians  to 
allow  their  children  to  grow  up  in  ignorance  and  vagrancy. 

(5)  The  general  assembly  shall  establish,  as  soon  as 
practicable,  normal  schools,  and  may  establish  agricul- 
tural schools  and  such  grades  of  schools  as  shall  be  for 
the  public  good. 

(6)  The  board  of  education  shall  provide  uniformity  of 
text-books,  and  the  furnishing  of  school-houses  with  such 
apparatus  and  library  as  may  be  necessary,  under  such 
regulations  as  may  be  provided  by  law. 

(7)  The  general  assembly  shall  set  apart  as  a  permanent 
and  perpetual  "literary  fund"  the  present  literary  fund 
of  the  State,  the  proceeds  of  all  public  lands  donated  by 
Congress  for  the  public  school  purposes,  of  all  escheated 
property,  of  all  waste  and  unappropriated  lands,  of  all 
property  accruing  to  the  State  by  forfeiture,  and  all  fines 
collected  for  offenses  committed  against  the  State,  and 
all  such  other  sums  as  the  general  assembly  may  appro- 
priate. 

(8)  The  general  assembly  shall  apply  the  annual  in- 
terest on  the  literary  fund,  the  capitation  tax  provided 
for  by  this  constitution  for  public  free  school  purposes, 

216 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

and  an  annual  tax  upon  the  property  of  the  State  of  not 
less  than  one  mill  nor  more  than  five  mills  on  the  dollar, 
for  the  equal  benefit  of  all  the  people  of  the  State,  the 
number  of  children  between  the  ages  of  five  and  twenty- 
one  years  in  each  public  free  school  district  being  the 
basis  of  such  division.  Provision  shall  be  made  to  supply 
children  attending  the  public  free  schools  with  necessary 
text-books  in  cases  where  the  parent  or  guardian  is  unable, 
by  reason  of  poverty,  to  furnish  them.  Each  county 
and  public  free  school  district  may  raise  additional  sums 
by  a  tax  on  property  for  the  support  of  public  free  schools. 
All  unexpended  sums  of  any  one  year  in  any  public  free 
school  district  shall  go  into  the  general  school  fund  for 
redivision  the  next  year:  Provided,  That  any  tax  au- 
thorized by  this  section  to  be  raised  by  counties  or  school 
districts  shall  not  exceed  five  mills  on  a  dollar  in  any  one 
year,  and  shall  not  be  subject  to  redivision,  as  herein 
before  provided  in  this  section. 

(9)  The  general  assembly  shall  have  the  power  to  foster 
all  higher  grades  of  schools  under  its  supervision,  and  to 
provide  for  such  purpose  a  permanent  educational  fund. 

(10)  All  grants  and  donations  received  by  the  general 
assembly  for  educational  purposes  shall  be  applied  accord- 
ing to  the  terms  prescribed  by  the  donors. 

(11)  Each  city  and  county  shall  be  held  accountable 
for  the  destruction  of  school  property  that  may  take  place 
within  its  limits  by  incendiaries  or  open  violence. 

(12)  The  general  assembly  shall  fix  the  salaries  and 
prescribe  the  duties  of  all  school  officers,  and  shall  make 
all  needful  laws  to  carry  into  effect  the  public  free  school 
system  provided  for  by  this  article. 

217 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

County  organizations.  And  there  shall  be  appointed,  in 
the  manner  provided  for,  in  Article  VIII,  one  superin- 
tendent of  schools;  Provided,  That  counties  containing 
less  than  eight  thousand  inhabitants  may  be  attached  to 
adjoining  counties  for  the  formation  of  districts  for  super- 
intendents of  schools :  Provided  also,  That  in  counties 
containing  thirty  thousand  inhabitants  there  may  be 
appointed  an  additional  superintendent  of  schools  therein. 
All  regular  elections  for  county  officers  shall  be  held  on 
the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November, 
and  all  officers  elected  or  appointed  under  this  provision 
shall  enter  upon  the  duties  of  their  offices  on  the  first 
day  of  January  next  succeeding  their  election  and  shall 
hold  their  respective  offices  for  the  term  of  three  years.  .  .  . 

School  Districts.  Each  township  shall  be  divided  into 
as  many  compactly  located  school  districts  as  may  be 
deemed  necessary :  Provided,  That  no  school  district 
shall  be  formed  containing  less  than  one  hundred  inhabit- 
ants. In  each  school  district  there  shall  be  elected  or 
appointed  annually  one  school  trustee,  who  shall  hold  his 
office  three  years :  Provided,  that  at  the  first  election 
held  under  this  provision  there  shall  be  three  trustees 
elected,  whose  terms  shall  be  one,  two,  and  three  years, 
respectively. 

This  was  the  legal  machinery  set  up  for  run- 
ning a  system  of  free  schools  for  all  the  children 
in  Virginia.  According  to  the  constitutional 
requirement,  the  Legislature  acted  promptly 
and  elected  the  Rev.  Wm.  H.  Ruffner,  of  Lex- 

218 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

ington,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion. This  proved  to  be  a  wise  choice,  for  the 
work  of  Dr.  Ruffner  in  inaugurating  a  public 
school  system  and  overcoming  the  long,  tradi- 
tional prejudice  of  the  people  of  Virginia  against 
such  a  plan  of  education  was  a  remarkable  ex- 
ample of  knowledge,  wisdom,  clear  vision,  and 
statesmanship.  The  new  superintendent  was  a 
son  of  Dr.  Henry  Ruffner,  one  time  president 
of  Washington  College,  who,  twenty  years  be- 
fore, had  submitted  a  remarkable  plan  for  the 
education  of  the  white  children  of  Virginia. 
This  plan  was  similar  to  the  system  which  a  few 
years  before  had  been  put  into  such  successful 
operation  in  Massachusetts  by  Horace  Mann, 
and  which  became  the  model  for  the  American 
system  of  public  education. 

The  constitution  provided  that  after  a  state 
superintendent  had  been  elected,  he  was  to  be 
given  thirty  days  in  which  to  prepare  a  report  to 
the  General  Assembly,  in  which  he  was  to  recom- 
mend a  plan  for  putting  into  operation  the  pro- 
visions of  the  new  constitution.     In  twenty-five 

days  Dr.  Ruffner  submitted  to  the  Legislature 

219 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

the  proposed  plan  for  instituting  a  system  of 
public  schools  in  the  state.  The  plan  submitted, 
with  a  few  modifications  by  the  Legislature,  was 
passed  and  signed  by  the  governor  July  11, 
1870. 

Work  of  the  First  State  Board  of  Education.  — 
The  first  work  of  the  Board  of  Education  was 
the  appointing  of  the  school  officials  necessary 
to  carry  out  the  intent  of  the  constitution.  In 
three  months  1400  county  superintendents  and 
district  trustees  were  appointed.  The  first 
duties  of  this  army  of  officials  were  to  organize 
for  work,  take  the  census  of  school  population, 
examine  and  commission  teachers,  and  deter- 
mine the  number  and  location  of  schools.  The 
state  superintendent  suggested  to  these  officials 
that  they  open  a  few  schools  in  each  county 
at  first,  and  by  this  means  the  plan  could  be 
tried  out,  and  the  effectiveness  of  such  a  system 
of  education  be  demonstrated  to  the  people. 
The  schools  were  opened  in  November,  1870, 
and  by  the  close  of  the  scholastic  year  there  were 
2900  schools,  3000  teachers,  and  an  attendance 
of  130,000  pupils.     The  average  daily  attend- 

220 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

ance  in  the  state  was  75,722,  and  the  percentage 
of  school  population  was,  for  whites,  37.6, 
colored,  23.4,  total,  31.8.  The  mountain  counties 
of  the  Southwest  led  in  the  number  of  children 
taking  advantage  of  this  school  system.  Gray- 
son County,  perched  upon  a  plateau  of  the 
Blue  Ridge,  enrolled  sixty-six  per  cent  of  her 
school  population  the  first  year.  Previous  to 
the  inauguration  of  a  state  system  of  free 
schools,  many  communities  were  maintaining 
private  schools,  and  in  many  instances  these 
passed  over  to  public  charge,  together  with  their 
buildings  and  endowment. 

The  Funds  for  the  Support  of  the  Schools.  — 
The  sources  of  money  for  the  support  of  schools 
were:  (1)  interest  on  the  Literary  Fund;  (2) 
capitation  taxes  ;  (3)  an  annual  tax  upon  the 
property  of  the  state  of  not  less  than  one 
mill,  nor  more  than  five  mills  on  the  dollar  ; 
(4)  each  county  and  district  was  empowered 
to  levy  an  additional  tax  not  to  exceed  five  mills 
on  the  dollar.  In  addition  to  these  constitu- 
tional provisions  small  amounts  were  donated 
by    private    individuals    for    school    purposes. 

221 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

While  this  scheme  seemed  to  be  an  ample  pro- 
vision for  the  support  of  the  schools,  as  a  matter 
of  fact  there  were  many  uncertain  factors  in  it 
that  resulted  in  embarrassment  and  difficulties 
for  the  school  officers.  The  schools  had  opened 
in  November,  but  there  were  no  funds  available 
until  December,  and  even  then  the  state  super- 
intendent could  not  anticipate  how  much  money 
could  be  expected  for  school  purposes.  The 
tax  collection  was  slow  and  uncertain.  The  local 
communities  voted  as  to  the  amount  of  county 
and  district  tax  to  be  levied.1  In  some  cases 
no  local  tax  was  levied  at  all,  these  communities 
depending  upon  the  state  for  the  funds  with 
which  to  run  their  schools.  The  first  year  the 
aggregate  sum  of  $450,000  was  expended  in  the 
support  of  the  schools.  In  a  few  subsequent 
years  there  was  an  alarming  decrease  in  the  avail- 
able funds  from  the  state  for  school  purposes. 
In  1872  there  was  a  falling  off  of  $130,156  from 
the  state  and  $200,000  from  local  sources. 
Dr.  Ruffner  called  the  attention  of  the  Legis- 

1  Seventy-two  counties  voted  a  local  tax  and  twenty-five  counties 
did  not  vote  at  all. 

222 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

lature  (1872)  to  the  fact  that  there  was  the 
"  frightful  deficit  in  the  total  revenues  of 
$400,856  as  compared  with  last  year,  a  deficit 
of  more  than  one-half  the  total  amount  received 
from  private  funds." 

Diversion  of  the  School  Funds.  —  Large 
amounts  of  the  funds  arising  from  the  constitu- 
tional provision  for  school  purposes  were  di- 
verted and  applied  to  other  uses  from  1870  to 
1879.  The  state  superintendent  called  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Legislature  to  this  fact  from  time  to 
time,  but  there  was  no  satisfactory  explanation 
given  by  the  treasurer  and  auditors.  Finally, 
a  resolution  was  passed  by  the  House  of  Dele- 
gates requiring  the  superintendent  to  call  upon 
the  auditor  for  information,  with  the  result  that 
the  auditor's  balances  showed  confusion  and 
a  lack  of  judgment  in  disbursing  the  funds  of 
the  state.  In  1877,  when  the  facts  were  really 
made  public,  there  was  found  to  be  a  deficit 
owing  to  the  diversion  of  the  school  funds  of 
$550,000.  The  explanation  of  this  condition, 
as  given  by  the  auditor,  was  that  he  had  the 
right  of  deciding  "  what  amounts,  in  his  opinion, 

223 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

the  Treasury  could  bear."  The  claim  of  the 
schools  in  his  opinion  did  not  rise  to  the  dignity 
of  some  other  governmental  claims  growing  out 
of  appropriations  made  by  law.  This  was  vir- 
tually saying  that  the  auditor  had  the  sole 
authority  in  the  use  of  state  funds,  regardless 
of  constitutional  provision.  It  denied  the  exist- 
ence of  school  money,  as  such,  regarding  it  but 
as  income  to  the  state  for  general  use.  This 
attitude  of  the  treasurer  of  the  state  was  an 
effort  to  weaken  and  ultimately  defeat  the  public 
school  system  so  recently  put  into  operation, 
and  it  reflected  the  attitude  of  a  large  element  in 
Virginia  who  were  from  the  first  opposed  to  a 
public  free  school  system  for  all  the  children  of 
the  state.  According  to  Dr.  Ruffner's  estimate, 
$1,113,052.56  was  the  total  amount  the  state 
was  in  arrears  to  the  public  school  funds,  by  the 
pernicious  efforts  to  divert  the  school  funds  to 
other  uses  during  the  period  from  1870  to  1879. 
The  Legislature  of  this  last  year,  after  a  bitter 
debate  involving  other  state  policies,  but  cen- 
tring around  the  practice  of  diverting  the  state 
school  money,  brought  the  matter  to  a  settle- 

224 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

ment  by  the  passage  of  a  law  in  which  the 
state  acknowledged  a  debt  of  $382,732.26  due 
the  schools,  and  providing  that  $15,000  of  this 
should  be  paid  over  to  the  school  fund  every 
three  months.  Even  this  law  was  not  executed 
until  the  auditor,  Mr.  Taylor,  who  had  been  the 
agent  in  the  diversion  of  the  fund  during  all  these 
years,  had  been  displaced  by  a  new  auditor.1 

A  Critical  Period  for  the  Public  Schools.  — 
The  conflict  between  the  friends  of  the  public 
school  system,  led  by  Superintendent  Ruffner 
on  the  one  side,  and  those  whose  efforts  were 
directed  toward  the  defeat  of  the  system  on  the 
other  side,  brought  the  matter  to  a  focus  in  the 
election  of  1879,  when  the  people  sent  a  majority 
to  the  Legislature  pledged  to  save  the  new  hope 
of  the  Commonwealth  from  sacrifice  and  utter 
defeat.  The  question  as  to  whether  the  people 
would  abandon  their  new  public  school  system 
in  order  to  pay  the  interest  on  the  public  debt 
was  the  prime  matter  for  settlement. 

The  superintendent  defended  the  school  sys- 

1  This  law  didn't  become  operative  until  1880.    See  U.  S.  Commis- 
sioner's Report,  1903,  p.  441. 

Q  225 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

tern  in  one  of  the  ablest  discussions  on  the  impor- 
tance of  universal  education  to  the  public  wel- 
fare that  has  ever  been  presented  to  the  people 
of  the  state.1 

The  trouble  originated  in  the  famous  "  fund- 
ing act "  of  1871,  which  provided  a  scheme 
for  paying  off  the  interest  on  the  state  debt. 
This  scheme  armed  the  bondholders  with  cou- 
pons which  covered  the  school  moneys  along  with 
other  moneys,  with  certain  means  of  collecting 
the  interest  on  the  bonds.  The  question  of 
"  funding  "  the  state  debt  created  a  "  furious 
political  commotion  "  throughout  the  entire  state. 
The  act  was  the  basis  of  the  claim  of  the  auditor 
in  the  practice  of  using  the  school  funds  for 
other  than  school  purposes.  It  was  this  practice 
that  Superintendent  Ruffner  referred  to  as  the 
"  diversion  of  the  school  funds."     He  says  : 

Here  in  the  famous  act  of  1871  we  have  the  root  of 
the  matter,  and  from  this  inherent  and  vigorous  root  have 
grown  all  the  financial  evils  which  have  plagued  succeed- 
ing Legislatures  and  crippled  the  school  system  more  and 
more,  until  now  its  enemies  point  to  it  and  say,  "What 
a  poor  thing  is  your  school  system." 

1  See  School  Report  of  1878. 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

On  account  of  the  lack  of  funds  and  the  "  im- 
measurable discontent "  among  the  people 
of  the  state,  resulting  from  the  uncertain  and 
unsatisfactory  financial  support  of  the  schools, 
there  was  an  alarming  falling  off  of  attendance 
in  the  number  of  schools  in  the  state.  The 
state  superintendent  had  predicted  this  in  his 
reports  to  the  Legislature  previous  to  1878.  The 
year  1878  closed  with  a  debt  of  $250,000  to  the 
teachers.  There  was  a  loss  of  127  schools  over 
the  previous  year.  There  was  a  decrease  in 
attendance  of  27,300  pupils  and  a  reduced 
expenditure  for  education  of  $88,451.  The 
loss  for  the  colored  race  was  greater  than 
for  the  white  children.  The  superintendent 
declared  that  the  loss  of  education  to  100,000 
children  would  cost  the  state  $1,500,000  for 
the  previous  schooling  of  $500,000  for  three 
years. 

By  the  year  1880,  the  disputed  points  had 
been  settled  in  a  satisfactory  way.  Happily 
for  the  school  system,  its  friends  had  saved  it 
from  defeat  and  ruin,  and  it  was  settled  for  all 
time  that  public  free  education  for  all  the  chil- 

227 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

dren  of  the  state  was- to  be  one  of  the  main  func- 
tions of  the  state  government.  The  superin- 
tendent reported  that  year  that  the  past  year 
had  been  the  "  best  in  all  respects,"  —  a  larger 
sum  of  money  had  been  turned  over  to  the 
schools  than  any  previous  year.  The  number 
of  schools  had  almost  been  doubled.  Two  hun- 
dred new  buildings  had  been  erected  and  nearly 
$100,000  added  to  the  value  of  school  property. 
The  total  expenditure  for  education  that  year 
reached  the  sum  of  $946,109.33. 

Public  Sentiment  concerning  Public  Schools. 
—  One  of  the  duties  of  the  school  officials  was 
to  create  a  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  public 
schools.  Jefferson,  in  his  efforts  to  establish 
primary  schools  in  the  state  from  1796  to  1818, 
often  became  impatient  with  the  state  of  leth- 
argy among  the  people  of  Virginia  regarding 
public  education.  The  people  of  the  state  had 
been  accustomed  for  twenty-five  years  to  the 
schools  for  the  "  poor  "  or  "  indigent,"  and  when 
the  public  free  schools  were  inaugurated  they 
associated  these  with  the  type  of  inferior  school 
under  the  old  regime  and  naturally  had  a  preju- 

228 


PUBLIC   SCHOOL  SYSTEM   INAUGURATED 

dice  against  them  at  first.  •  The  new  system 
had  to  be  proved  before  it  would  be  accepted  by 
a  large  class  of  people.  Then  there  were  a  great 
many  very  influential  leaders  in  the  state,  who 
openly  and  uncompromisingly  were  opposed 
to  the  system,  on  the  broad  ground  that  it  was 
not  a  governmental  function  to  educate  all  the 
children ;  that  it  created  hopes  and  aspirations 
that  could  never  be  realized  by  the  laboring 
classes.  There  was  a  strong  general  sentiment 
against  educating  the  negroes.1  Dr.  R.  L. 
Dabney  of  Hampden-Sidney  was  most  active  in 
the  opposition  to  the  public  school  idea.  He 
sought  all  opportunities  in  print  and  on  the  plat- 
form to  stay  the  growing  public  sentiment  in 
favor  of  the  new  system  of  free  schools. 

The  people  of  Virginia  had  long  been  accus- 
tomed to  look  upon  education  as  a  function 
of  the  home  and  an  individual  responsibility. 
They  were  slow  to  realize  the  appropriateness  of 
the  state's  taking  over  this  function  of  educating 
all  the  children  of  the  state,  white  and  colored 

1  Previous  to  the  war  the  laws  of  Virginia  imposed  a  penalty  upon  any 
one  who  taught  them  to  read.     See  School  Report,  1885,  p.  265. 

229 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

alike.  Particularly  were  they  opposed  to  the 
state's  fostering  education  among  the  latter 
class,  so  recently  their  menial  servants.  All 
this  opposition  had  to  be  combated  in  establish- 
ing a  system  of  free  schools  in  Virginia.  Dr. 
Ruffner  often  called  the  attention  of  the  school 
officials  to  this  important  fact  through  the 
medium  of  the  public  press  and  through  the 
Virginia  School  Journal.  In  1872  he  inquired 
through  the  division  superintendents  as  to  the 
public  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  new  school 
system.  They  answered  in  general  that  there 
was  a  growing  sentiment  in  their  favor.  The 
following  excerpts  from  some  of  their  reports 
indicate  this  fact. 

Excerpts  from  the  Reports  of  Division 
Superintendents  ! 

Accomac.  —  "Steady  improvement  among  the  masses 
in  favor  of  the  schools.  We  sadly  need  more  school- 
houses.  This  is  the  greatest  drawback  and  affords  the 
most  effective  weapon  to  our  foes." 

Albemarle.  —  "Public  sentiment  has  undergone  a 
great  change  in  favor  of  the  system.  Almost  all  persons 
are  now  willing  to  patronize  it." 

1  See  School  Report,  1872,  pp.  19-33. 

230 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

Amelia.  —  "Opposition  of  the  whites  manifestly  abat- 
ing. A  few  prominent  men  still  affect  dislike  but  the 
masses  are  calling  for  more  schools." 

Augusta.  —  "In  most  instances,  the  schools  gave 
satisfaction.  Individuals  who  formerly  held  off  came  in 
and  patronized  the  schools.  There  are  still  many  persons 
of  prominence  and  influence  who  from  principle  or  interest 
oppose  the  whole  system." 

Bedford.  —  "Progress  of  public  sentiment  in  regard 
to  public  schools  is  encouraging  to  the  friends  of  the 
system.  True,  there  are  many  objectors  who  are  deter- 
mined in  their  opposition  and  earnest  in  denunciation." 

Brunswick.  —  "  There  is  a  considerable  change  in  the 
public  sentiment  of  the  County  in  relation  to  the  present 
free  school  system.  It  was  at  first  looked  upon  with 
great  disfavor.  It  is  now  regarded  with  a  more  favorable 
eye." 

Campbell.  —  "  Some  hostility  still  exists,  but  the  fierce 
opposition  encountered  at  first  has  abated." 

Culpeper.  —  "Favorable.  If  each  neighborhood  had 
a  school  there  would  be  very  little  opposition  or  dissatis- 
faction." 

Henrico.  —  "Public  sentiment  is  no  less  in  favor  of 
public  free  schools  than  when  I  submitted  my  last  report 
(1871).  If  there  be  any  difference,  perhaps  they  are  grow- 
ing in  favor.  The  people  are  disposed  to  grumble  because 
the  schools  are  discontinued  before  the  close  of  the  session 
from  want  of  funds." 

King  William.  —  "A  large  majority  take  little  or  no 
interest  in  public  education  and  give  no  thought  to  the 
matter,  except  as  regards  taxes  for  its  support." 

231 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Lunenburg.  —  "The  public  sentiment  in  the  County 
is  largely  in  favor  of  the  public  free  schools." 

Mecklenburg.  —  "I  believe  that  opposition  to  the 
public  school  system  has  almost  ceased." 

Nelson.  —  "The  sentiment  of  this  county  is  decidedly 
favorable  to  the  public  school  system." 

Northampton.  —  "Public  sentiment  is  gradually  be- 
coming more  favorable." 

Pittsylvania.  —  "Public  sentiment  has  been  rapidly 
growing  in  favor  of  the  public  schools.  Two  things 
only  are  required  to  make  the  free  schools  a  decided 
success,  neat,  commodious,  and  well  furnished  school- 
houses." 

Rappahannock.  —  "Public  sentiment  in  this  County  is 
in  the  main  favorable  to  public  schools  now,  although  some 
complain  of  the  injustice,  as  they  call  it,  of  being  taxed 
to  educate  other  people's  children." 

Rockingham.  —  "The  public  schools  are  gradually 
growing  in  favor  of  the  masses." 

Russell.  —  "I  am  highly  gratified  to  report  that 
public  sentiment  which  was  almost  entirely  against  us 
last  year  was  considerably  in  our  favor  this  year,  though 
we  have  a  few  noisy  opponents." 

Smith.  —  "The  people  of  this  County  are  for  the  most 
part  in  favor  of  public  schools." 

Spottsylvania.  —  "Public  sentiment  is  not  favorable 
to  the  system  of  public  free  schools  in  this  County.  Most 
of  the  people  are  landowners,  and  they  think  their  in- 
terests unjustly  dealt  with,  and  their  prejudice  against 
colored  schools  is  very  wrong." 

Washington.  —  "Public  sentiment  is  growing  some- 

232 


PUBLIC   SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

what  more  favorable  toward  the  schools.  The  opposition 
is  not  so  violent." 

Lynchburg  City.  —  "  Public  sentiment  has  steadily 
undergone  a  change  in  our  favor  during  the  last  year 
until  now  few  have  the  temerity  to  avow  themselves 
opposers.  Every  appeal  of  the  council  for  pecuniary 
assistance  has  been  responded  to  with  cheerfulness  and 
alacrity.  The  High  School  has  made  very  rapid  progress. 
As  an  evidence  of  popular  confidence  and  approval  I 
may  mention  that  the  number  of  advanced  girls  in  at- 
tendance is  increasing  in  the  greatest  ratio." 

Norfolk  City.  —  "There  has  been  for  many  years  a 
strong  popular  current  in  favor  of  public  schools  in  this 
city.  When  the  schools  were  first  opened  by  the  city, 
there  was  a  general  rush  of  applicants  from  all  classes 
seeking  admission.  After  a  while,  there  seemed  to  arise 
a  prejudice  against  these  schools,  from  an  impression  that 
health  and  morals  would  both  be  endangered  from  a  too 
promiscuous  mingling  of  all  elements  of  society." 

Richmond  City.  —  "Public  sentiment  has  continued 
to  grow  more  and  more  healthy  in  reference  to  our  public 
school  system." 

Petersburg.  —  "The  inauguration  of  the  public 
school  system  found  a  portion  of  citizens  opposed  and  the 
rest  either  friendly  or  indifferent.  The  position  is  assumed 
by  some  that  public  schools,  while  tolerated,  must  not  be 
good  enough  to  rival  private  schools.  That  they  must 
not  be  allowed  to  attain  such  efficiency  as  will  gain  the 
favor  of  parents  able  to  pay  the  private  school  teachers." 

Alexandria  City.  —  "Public  sentiment  is  strongly  in 
favor  of  the  public  schools.     The  Finance  Committee  of 

233 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

the  City  Council,  having  been  instructed  to  set  apart 
$600  a  month  for  school  purposes,  failed  to  do  so  on  ac- 
count of  the  embarrassed  condition  of  the  city's  finances. 
On  my  report  of  the  matter,  council  took  it  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  Committee  and  confided  it  to  the  Treasurer 
who  paid  up  the  quota  due  in  advance  of  all  claims." 

These  reports  indicate  the  attitude  of  the 
people  toward  the  established  schools  and  they 
indicate  also  the  gigantic  task  of  Superintendent 
Ruffner  and  his  officials  over  the  state,  of  clear- 
ing away  the  prejudice  and  other  opposing  fac- 
tors, so  that  the  effectiveness  of  the  system  might 
be  demonstrated.  The  state  superintendent 
from  the  first  expressed  implicit  confidence  in 
the  ultimate  success  of  the  system  and  it  might 
have  failed  but  for  the  persistent  and  sane  ef- 
forts of  Dr.  Ruffner  through  the  period  of  twelve 
years  during  which  the  system  was  on  trial. 
In  addition,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  following 
are  some  of  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  suc- 
cessful operation  of  the  public  school  system. 

(1)  Prejudice  against  the  public  school  system. 
(2)  Feeling  of  poverty  among  the  people.  (3)  Aversion 
to  the  education  of  the  negro  at  public  expense. 
(4)    Lack    of    suitable    schoolhouses    and    appliances. 

234 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

(5)  Teachers'  lack  of  professional  training.  (6)  Financial 
annoyances.  (7)  Trouble  concerning  the  state  debt. 
(8)  The  impossibility  of  supplying  schools  for  all  the 
neighborhoods  clamoring  for  them. 

Normal  Schools.  —  One  of  the  constitutional 
requirements  for  education  in  the  state  was 
that  the  "  State  Board  of  Education  establish 
normal  schools  as  soon  as  possible."  In  his 
first  report  to  the  Legislature  in  1870,  Dr.  RuflF- 
ner  advises  that  provision  be  made  whereby 
normal  schools  for  the  training  of  teachers  be 
established.  He  gives  full  arguments  from  a 
carefully  prepared  array  of  statistics  showing 
the  growth  of  normal  schools  in  the  eastern  and 
central  states.  His  advice  to  the  Legislature 
was  that,  if  that  body  could  not  at  that  time 
provide  the  necessary  expenditure  to  establish 
several  normal  schools  on  a  substantial  basis, 
it  might  be  possible  to  provide  limited  finan- 
cial means  sufficient  to  operate  what  he  calls 
"  ambulatory  normals."  x  The  idea  was  to  em- 
ploy a  faculty  of  three  or  four  specialists,  paid 
in  part  by  the  state,  these  to  travel  from  one 

1  See  School  Report,  1871,  p.  142. 
235 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

section  of  the  state  to  another,  and  hold  ses- 
sions from  four  to  six  weeks,  and  in  this  way  all 
the  teachers  could  be  reached  in  a  comparatively 
short  time.  But  this  plan  was  never  carried 
out  in  the  form  in  which  it  was  originally  planned 
by  the  state  superintendent. 

Normal  Institutes.  —  The  demand  for  peda- 
gogical training  among  the  more  advanced 
teachers  of  the  state  resulted  in  the  establishment 
in  a  few  sections  of  the  state  of  Summer  In- 
stitutes, running  four  or  six  weeks.  These  were 
designated  as  "  Summer  Normal  Institutes " 
and  many  teachers  from  a  half  dozen  contiguous 
counties  would  attend.  These  sessions  were 
usually  held  in  July,  followed  by  the  examina- 
tion for  teachers'  certificates.  Such  a  normal 
was  held  at  Bridgewater  in  Rockingham  County 
for  a  great  many  consecutive  summers  between 
the  70's  and  the  80's.  Later  this  school  devel- 
oped into  the  Valley  Normal.  Other  more  per- 
manent institutes  were  held  in  Botetourt  County, 
at  Strasburg  in  Shenandoah  County,  and  in 
many  other  sections  of  the  state. 

A  little  later  (1880)  a  summer  session  for  white 
236 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

teachers  was  held  at  the  University  of  Virginia 
and  one  at  Lynchburg  for  the  colored  teachers. 
Funds  for  the  support  of  these  schools  came 
largely  from  the  Peabody  Fund,  the  agent  of 
which,  Dr.  Sears,  had  made  his  headquarters 
at  Staunton,  Virginia.  There  was  an  attendance 
at  the  University  of  Virginia  this  session  of  467 
teachers,  —  212  women  and  155  men.  The 
attendance  at  Lynchburg  was  240.  The  em- 
phasis of  the  work  at  these  two  sessions  was  upon 
the  best  method  of  teaching  the  public  school 
branches.  The  school  at  the  University  of 
Virginia  was  under  the  management  of  Dr. 
M.  A.  Newell,  state  superintendent  of  educa- 
tion of  Maryland.  He  was  assisted  by  Profes- 
sors McGilveray  of  Richmond  and  A.  L.  Fink 
of  Staunton,  and  a  score  of  lecturers,  among 
whom  were  Hon.  John  Eaton,  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education,  Rev.  A.  D.  Mayo 
of  Boston,  and  some  of  the  professors  of  the 
University  of  Virginia.  This  was  the  first 
organized  state-wide  effort  to  give  an  opportu- 
nity for  training  the  teachers  for  the  public 
schools. 

237 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

County  Institutes.  —  From  the  very  first 
(1870)  Dr.  Ruffner  called  upon  the  division 
superintendents  to  hold  institutes  at  which  the 
teachers  should  demonstrate  the  best  ways  of 
presenting  the  subjects  to  the  children.  Often 
the  superintendent  called  to  his  assistance  some 
leading  educators  in  the  state  and  local  men  and 
women  of  influence  to  lecture.  This  meeting 
had  a  twofold  object:  (1)  to  give  professional 
training  to  the  teachers,  and  (2)  to  create  public 
sentiment  in  favor  of  the  public  schools.  It 
soon  became  the  custom  in  all  the  counties  to 
hold  these  institutes  two  or  three  times  during 
the  session.  They  sometimes  lasted  for  a  whole 
week.  These  meetings  had  much  to  do  with 
creating  a  professional  spirit  among  the  teachers 
and  introducing  superior  methods  of  teaching 
the  public  school  subjects. 

The  Peabody  Fund  in  Virginia.  —  In  1866 
George  Peabody,  then  living  in  London,  gave  to 
education  in  the  southern  states  the  sum  of 
$3,500,000  in  stocks  and  bonds.  Of  this  sum 
$1,500,000  of  Mississippi  and  Florida  state  bonds 
was  afterwards  repudiated,  leaving  an  available 

238 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

fund  of  $2,000,000  for  the  cause  of  education. 
Dr.  Sears,  the  first  agent  of  this  fund,  located 
at  Staunton,  Virginia,  at  the  time  the  state 
was  establishing  its  free  school  system.  Dr. 
Sears  came  to  the  assistance  of  Dr.  Ruff ner  many 
times  during  the  first  decade  in  which  a  public  free 
school  system  was  being  inaugurated  in  Virginia. 
Dr.  Sears  laid  down  the  general  policy  of  using 
the  funds  for  the  purpose  of  an  incentive.  He 
proposed  "  to  help  those  who  would  help  them- 
selves." This  fund  was  used  :  (1)  to  aid  graded 
free  schools,  (2)  city  schools,  (3)  summer  schools 
for  teachers.  For  this  reason  these  summer 
schools  were  often  designated  as  "  Peabody 
Institutes."  The  programme  under  which  the 
funds  were  at  first  distributed  was : 

For  well-regulated  graded  public  schools  continuing 
for  nine  or  ten  months  with  at  least  one  teacher  for  every 
fifty  pupils,  the  people  or  the  public  authorities  paying 
at  least  twice  as  much  for  current  expenses,  the  Peabody 
fund  will  pay  : 1 


for  not  less  than  100  pupils       .     .     . 

for  not  less  than  150  pupils       .     .     .       450 

for  not  less  than  200  pupils       .     .     .       600 

1  See  Virginia  Educational  Journal,  Vol.  II,  p.  75. 
239 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

for  not  less  than  250  pupils       .     .     .     $800 
for  not  less  than  300  pupils       .     .     .     1000 

During  the  twelve  years  of  Dr.  Ruffner's 
administration  the  state  received  the  total 
sum  of  $233,000  from  the  Peabody  Fund,  which 
was  about  one-fifth  of  the  amount  received  by 
all  the  southern  states.  Thus  it  will  be  seen 
that  Virginia  received  the  lion's  share  of  this 
fund.  After  Peabody  College  was  founded  by 
the  Peabody  Board,  at  Nashville,  Tennessee, 
the  fund  was  distributed  on  the  basis  of  school 
population,  in  two  hundred  dollar  scholarships. 
To  this  school  Virginia  received  during  the  time 
(1877  to  1910)  about  $60,000.  At  this  last 
year  the  entire  fund  of  $1,000,000  was  turned 
over  to  the  endowment  of  the  George  Peabody 
College  for  Teachers,  at  Nashville,  Tennessee, 
where  a  great  Teachers'  College  is  being  organ- 
ized for  the  whole  South. 

Summary  of  Dr.  Ruffner's  Administration.  — 
The  administration  of  Dr.  Ruffner  will  forever 
stand  out  as  a  most  remarkable  piece  of  construc- 
tive work  in  the  history  of  education  in  Virginia. 
He  has  already  come  to  be  looked  upon  as  the 

240 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

"  Horace  Mann  of  Virginia."  Though  his  work 
came  forty  years  after  the  Massachusetts  edu- 
cator, yet  it  was  essentially  the  same  problem 
and  attended  with  the  same  or  even  greater  diffi- 
culties. Dr.  Ruffner  issued  twelve  reports  and 
discussed  the  same  educational  topics  that  one 
finds  in  the  Massachusetts  reports.  In  some 
respects  the  difficulties  encountered  by  Dr. 
Ruffner  were  more  complicated  on  account  of  the 
social  and  financial  conditions  in  Virginia.  The 
people  of  Massachusetts  had  no  such  conditions 
as  those  relating  to  the  freedmen,  and  none 
comparable  to  those  pertaining  to  the  social  and 
religious  conditions  in  Virginia.  The  people 
of  Massachusetts  were  more  homogeneous,  and 
their  interests  were  different  from  those  of  the 
people  of  Virginia.  Public  education  found  a 
more  ready  acceptance  in  New  England  democ- 
racy than  it  did  in  the  more  or  less  aristocratic 
society  of  Virginia.  For  these  and  many  other 
reasons  the  task  of  establishing  a  public  school 
system  in  Virginia,  even  at  the  late  date  of  1870, 
was  infinitely  more  difficult  than  that  of  Horace 
Mann  in  Massachusetts. 
r  241 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

The  inauguration  of  a  public  school  system 
in  Virginia  was  not  a  matter  of  a  gradual  evolu- 
tion among  the  people,  but  came  rather  suddenly 
in  the  midst  of  circumstances  peculiar  and 
unusual.  The  people  of  Virginia,  together  with 
the  whole  South,  were  at  this  time  more  con- 
cerned about  matters  political  and  civil  than 
about  matters  of  education.  Dr.  Ruffner  and 
the  friends  of  education  in  the  state  had  before 
them  the  great  task  of  turning  the  attention  of 
the  people  to  the  function  of  education,  and  to 
devise  a  suitable  machinery  to  carry  the  system 
forward.  This  was  no  small  task;  only  the 
most  consummate  energy,  wisdom,  and  diplomacy 
could  bring  to  a  successful  issue  such  a  scheme  as 
a  system  of  universal  education  for  the  state. 

Regardless  of  all  these  almost  insurmountable 
difficulties,  the  system  evolved  came  to  be  ac- 
cepted in  a  few  years  as  a  most  effective  sys- 
tem of  educating  the  people  of  Virginia.  Dr. 
Ruffner  marshalled  all  the  forces  in  the  state 
and  focussed  them  upon  the  problem  of  edu- 
cating the  whole  people.  He  closed  his  tenth 
report  with  these  impressive  words : 

242 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 

I  have  now  delivered  my  testimony  and  perhaps  am 
near  the  end  of  my  public  service.  Always  the  time  comes 
to  lay  down  the  burden.  I  personally  will  have  no  feel- 
ing but  that  of  great  relief.  My  work  I  commend  to 
God,  and  my  conduct  to  the  charitable  judgment  of  my 
countrymen.  My  part  will  still  live  in  the  noble  work 
of  educating  the  people  and  building  up  the  common- 
wealth. 

How  wise  he  was  in  all  this  initial  work  the 
present  and  future  generations  will  say. 

With  the  cooperation  of  a  body  of  such  eminent 
educators  as  Dr.  Barnas  Sears,  Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  Pro- 
fessor Edward  S.  Joynes,  Professor  John  B.  Minor  and 
others  it  is  not  remarkable  that  the  school  system  estab- 
lished under  the  administration  of  Dr.  Ruffner  has  sur- 
vived the  assaults  of  all  its  enemies  and  the  neglect  or  the 
indifference  of  its  half-hearted  friends.  And  if  the  progress 
of  the  system  during  the  last  fifteen  years  of  the  century 
seems  not  to  have  justified  the  anticipation  of  its  more 
enthusiastic  friends,  and  other  states  of  the  South  have 
accomplished  more,  it  has  been  from  the  fact  that  the 
idea  of  its  first  great  superintendent  of  schools  was  prac- 
tically half  a  century  in  advance  of  the  possibility  of  the 
Virginia  of  1870-1885  to  realize.1 

1  Rev.  A.  D.  Mayo,  United  States  Commissioner's  Report,  1903,  Vol.  I, 
p.  440.  William  Henry  Ruffner  was  born  in  1824  at  Lexington,  Virginia, 
where  his  father  was  president  of  Washington  College.  There  he  received 
the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  when  he  delivered  an 

243 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

The  following  tabulations  regarding  the  growth 
of  school  attendance  and  expenditure  will  indi- 
cate the  development  of  favorable  public  opin- 
ion regarding  the  school  system  : 

Growth  of  Virginia's  Public  School  System 


Year 

Pupils 
(5-21  Yrs.) 

Enrol. 

Daily 

Attend. 

Percent, 
op  Attend. 

MONTHLT 

Enrol. 

Teachers 

1871 

441,021 

131,088 

75,722 

57.7 

4.66 

3014 

1875 

482,789 

184,486 

103,927 

56.3 

5.59 

4262 

1880 

555,807 

220,730 

128,604 

58.1 

5.64 

4873 

1885 

610,271 

303,343 

176,469 

58.1 

5.92 

6693 

1890 

652,045 

342,269 

198,290 

57.9 

5.91 

7523 

1895 

665,533 

355,986 

202,530 

56.8 

5.95 

8292 

1900 

691,312 

370,595 

216,464 

58.4 

6.00 

8954 

1905 

580,618  1 

361,772 

215,205 

59.4 

6.40 

9972 

1910 

615,379 

402,109 

259,394 

64.5 

7.04 

10443 

oration  on  "The  Power  of  Knowledge."  Three  years  later  he  received 
the  degree  of  master  of  arts.  He  became  a  leader  in  Christian  and  tem- 
perance work ;  studied  theology  at  Hampden-Sidney  and  at  Princeton ; 
was  chaplain  at  the  University  of  Virginia ;  married  in  1850 ;  was  pastor 
of  the  Seventh  Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia.  On  account  of  ill 
health  from  overwork  he  retired  to  a  Virginia  farm.  He  was  opposed  to 
slavery,  though  he  was  never  disloyal  to  his  state.  From  1870  to  1882 
he  was  superintendent  of  public  instruction;  he  was  superintendent  of 
Virginia's  first  State  Normal  School  from  1884  to  1886;  he  retired  near 
Lexington,  and  died  in  1908.  Dr.  Ruffner  was  presented  with  a  medal  by 
the  Chilean  government  for  a  plan  of  public  education  for  that  govern- 
ment. 

1  Between  seven  and  twenty  years  (new  constitution  of  1902). 

244 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  INAUGURATED 


Growth  of  Expenditures 


Monthly  Salary 

Year 

State  Fund 

County  and 
District 

of  Teachers 

Value  op 
School 

Property 

Males 

Females 

1871 

362,100 

330,332 

$32.36 

$26.33 

$189,680 

1875 

488,490 

473,977 

33.62 

28.71 

757,181 

1880 

596,629 

490,089 

29.20 

27.65 

1,177,544 

1885 

844,475 

606,421 

31.00 

26.88 

1,819,256 

1890 

851,467 

705,429 

31.69 

26.61 

2,235,085 

1895 

974,351 

805,625 

32.82 

26.95 

2,982,828 

1900 

1,015,538 

926,993 

32.47 

26.18 

3,536,293 

1905 

1,128,262 

1,214,973 

36.86 

28.11 

4,297,625 

1910 

1,584,933 

2,767,302 

47.31 

35.83 

8,555,34s1 

1  In  1910  the  average  salary  per  month  for  white  teachers  was :  men 
$52.15 ;  women,  $37.54.  The  annual  cost  of  teaching  each  white  child 
was  $12.84.     The  percentage  of  revenue  was  97  per  cent. 


245 


CHAPTER  XIII 

SUBSEQUENT   DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   PUBLIC 
FREE    SCHOOL   SYSTEM 

The  New  State  Superintendent.  —  The  elec- 
tion in  1881  completely  overthrew  the  party 
that  had  been  in  power  in  Virginia  for  a  century. 
The  united  votes  largely  of  the  people  west  of 
the  Alleghany  Mountains  and  the  newly  en- 
franchised colored  people  changed  the  state 
and  congressional  representation.  This  new 
state  Legislature  elected  Mr.  R.  R.  Farr  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  who  held 
that  office  for  the  next  four  years. 

Educational  Events  in  the  New  Administra- 
tion. —  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  new  Legisla- 
ture was  the  appropriation  of  $400,000  of  the 
$500,000  received  from  the  sale  of  the  state's 
interest  in  the  Atlantic,  Mississippi,  and  Ohio 
Railroad   for   the   reduction   of   the   enormous 

246 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  FREE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

state  debt  of  $30,000,000,  and  the  remaining 
$100,000  to  the  establishment  of  the  Normal 
and  Industrial  Institute  for  Colored  Youth  at 
Petersburg.  During  the  year  1882  the  sum  of 
$1,157,142  was  used  for  school  purposes.  That 
was  the  greatest  amount  yet  used  for  school 
purposes  in  one  year.  School  attendance  in- 
creased, and  there  was  a  general  forward  move- 
ment in  education  over  the  entire  state. 

In  1882  there  was  held  the  first  conference 
of  county  and  city  school  officials  in  Richmond. 
Out  of  the  one  hundred  city  and  county  super- 
intendents in  the  state,  eighty-nine  were  in 
attendance.  Addresses  were  heard  from  Hon. 
John  Eaton,  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education,  Gen.  S.  C.  Armstrong,  State  Su- 
perintendent Wickersham  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  agent  of  the  Peabody 
Fund.  This  meeting  gave  a  great  impetus  to 
public  education  in  the  state. 

An  act  of  the  Legislature  provided  that  90 
per  cent  of  the  state  school  fund  be  assigned 
to  the  counties,  and  provision  was  also  made  by 
which  more  of   the  deficit  by  the  state  to  the 

247 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

school  fund  was  returned  to  its  original  purpose. 
Dr.  Curry,  the  agent  of  the  Peabody  Fund, 
urged  that  the  Legislature  provide  that  some 
of  the  school  fund  of  the  state  be  used  for  the 
training  of  teachers,  thus  carrying  out  the 
constitutional  provision  that  "  Normal  Schools 
be  provided  as  soon  as  practicable." 

State  Normal  School  Established  at  Farm- 
ville.  —  The  most  notable  event  of  the  year  1884 
was  the  legislative  act  providing  that  a  school 
should  be  located  at  Farmville  for  the  express 
purpose  of  the  "  training  of  female  teachers  for 
the  public  schools,"  to  be  governed  by  a  board 
composed  of  W.  H.  Ruffner,  Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curry, 
Prof.  J.  B.  Minor,  Gen.  S.  C.  Armstrong,  and 
ten  additional  members.  This  board  imme- 
diately elected  Dr.  W.  H.  Ruffner  the  first 
president  of  the  school.  The  property  of  the 
Farmville  Female  College  was  turned  over  to 
the  state  and  an  appropriation  of  $5000  for 
equipment  of  the  school,  and  $10,000  for  run- 
ning expenses  was  made.  Dr.  Curry  gave 
$5000  as  a  gift  from  the  Peabody  Fund.  The 
original  plan  of  the  school  as  drafted   by  Dr. 

248 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  FREE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

Curry  did  not  contemplate  limiting  the  institu- 
tion to  girls,  but  the  school  has  always  excluded 
men  from  attendance.  Later  William  and  Mary 
College  became  the  training  school  for  men 
teachers.  Dr.  Ruffner  laid  out  as  elaborate 
a  scheme  for  training  teachers  as  the  limited 
funds  would  permit.  Thus  the  entire  provi- 
sion for  education  in  the  Constitution  of  1869 
was  completed,  and  Dr.  Ruffner,  by  whose 
wisdom  the  public  free  schools  came  into  being, 
now  was  called  to  fulfil  the  remaining  part  of 
the  educational  provision  of  the  Constitution. 

Teachers'  Reading  Circles.  —  At  four  of  the 
Summer  Institutes  (1884)  reading  associations 
were  organized  among  the  teachers,  under  the 
leadership  of  Prof.  F.  V.  N.  Painter,  of  Roanoke 
College,  who  rendered  valuable  service  in  many 
ways  to  the  cause  of  universal  education  in  the 
state. 

Final  Report  of  Superintendent  Farr.  —  Su- 
perintendent Farr  collected  some  new  and 
interesting  statistics  regarding  teachers;  their 
educational  preparation,  salary,  age,  sex, 
nativity,    number    having    attended    Peabody 

249 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Institutes,  and  grades  of  certificates  held.  The 
total  number  of  teachers  this  year  was  6333. 
In  1881  there  were  751  more  men  teachers 
than  women,  but  in  1885  there  were  55  more 
women  than  men.  The  average  monthly  salary 
this  year  was  for  men  $31.00  and  for  women 
$26.88.  It  was  found  that  645  teachers  were 
not  natives  of  Virginia ;  1777  had  attended  the 
summer  normals;  2485  had  received  their 
training  in  the  public  schools  of  Virginia ;  1380 
were  educated  in  the  colleges  and  private  schools 
of  the  state.  The  state  institutions  for  higher 
learning  had  furnished  145,  while  the  denomi- 
national colleges  furnished  225.  In  1888,  723 
held  professional  certificates;  2480,  first  grade 
certificates,  2007,  second  grade,  and  1123,  third 
grade.  It  will  be  seen  that  about  one-half  of 
the  teachers  held  either  second  or  third  grade 
certificates.  Of  the  4789  white  teachers,  over 
half  of  them  were  between  the  ages  of  eighteen 
and  thirty.  » 

This  last  report  shows  important  gains  in 
all  aspects  of  the  school  system,  so  that  Su- 
perintendent Farr  says : 

250 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  FREE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

The  schools  have  improved  in  every  detail ;  that  the 
system  is  stronger  than  ever  before  and  that  it  now  com- 
mands the  respect  of  all  classes  of  people  in  the  state. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  county  and  city  superintend- 
ents, held  during  the  last  year  of  his  admin- 
istration, these  officials  furnished  a  brief  and 
popular  history  of  the  schools  in  each  county 
and  city.  These  were  embodied  in  the  su- 
perintendent's final  report.  A  summary  show- 
ing the  substantial  growth  of  the  schools  from 
the  time  of  their  inauguration  is  given. 

The  Administration  of  John  L.  Buchannon.  — 
Mr.  John  L.  Buchannon  held  the  office  of  su- 
perintendent from  1885  to  1889.  The  public 
school  system  had  found  a  permanent  place 
in  the  state.  Educational  conditions  were 
what  a  Virginia  President  of  the  United  States 
called  an  "  era  of  good  feeling."  There  is  no 
evidence  of  any  widespread  hostility  to  the 
public  schools  except  the  feeling  against  the 
education  of  the  negro  race.  This  last  problem 
was  being  more  satisfactorily  solved  by  such 
men  as  Dr.  S.  C.  Armstrong,  head  of  the  Hamp- 
ton  Normal   Institute,   and  the  agent  of  the 

251 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Slater  Fund,1  who  were  rapidly  turning  the 
training  of  the  people  of  this  race  into  industrial 
lines.  But,  in  general,  the  inauguration  of  the 
public  school  system,  fraught  with  so  much  bit- 
terness and  earnest  effort  in  the  past,  came  to  be 
recognized  as  the  system  that  had  come  to  stay. 
During  the  administration  of  Mr.  Buchannon, 
there  was  a  continued  increase  in  school  patron- 
age, school  funds,  and  school  property  values. 
One  of  the  new  features  in  educational  activi- 
ties in  the  state  was  the  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  State  Board  to  carry  out  the  law  by  giving 
the  schools  a  uniform  series  of  text-books,  and 
as  far  as  possible,  the  selection  of  authors  was 
made  from  Virginians.  Full  reports  were  pub- 
lished from  the  various  state  institutions,  each 
of  which  showed  them  to  be  in  a  flourishing 
condition,  though  greatly  in  need  of  additional 
funds  to  meet  the  increasing  demand  of  these 
valuable  institutions. 

1  In  1882  Mr.  Jno.  T.  Slater  of  Norwich,  Connecticut,  conveyed  to 
Trustees  $1,000,000  for  the  education  of  the  negro  race  of  the  South. 
Its  appropriations  have  been  devoted  particularly  to  the  industrial 
education  of  the  negro  youth.  The  average  annual  income  from  this 
fund  is  about  $30,000. 

252 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  FREE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

Administration  of  Hon.  John  E.  Massey.  — 
At  the  end  of  this  period  of  twenty  years,  the 
public  school  system  emerged  as  an  established 
fact  from  the  violent  storm  of  political  conflict 
centring  about  the  payment  of  the  state  debt. 
Mr.  Massey,  who  had  taken  an  active  part  in 
the  public  debates  on  this  question,  had  won  a 
wide  reputation  for  his  power  and  influence  as  a 
public  speaker,  and  for  his  well-known  attitude 
toward  the  public  school  system,  became  the 
candidate  for  the  office  of  state  superintendent, 
and  was  elected  to  this  position  in  1890.  Mr. 
Massey  brought  to  the  public  school  system  of 
the  state  the  power  of  a  strong  advocate  and  a 
discriminating  judgment  in  matters  relating 
to  the  educational  needs  of  the  state.  He 
could  carry  an  audience  with  him  upon  almost 
any  topic  he  chose  to  discuss  before  them.  He 
travelled  extensively  in  all  parts  of  the  state, 
persuading  the  people  to  look  well  to  the  educa- 
tion of  the  600,000  children  of  school  age.  He 
put  the  emphasis  upon  the  "  intensive  "  aspect 
of  public  education,  and  sought  to  improve  the 
quality  of  teaching  rather  than  to  extend  the 

253 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

system  to  a  greater  number  of  children.  He 
sought  to  make  more  worthy  of  support  the 
system  already  so  well  established.  He  set 
for  his  task  the  improvement  of  the  teaching 
force  of  the  state. 

Revival  of  County  and  State  Institutes.  — 
In  1890  only  forty-seven  division  superintendents 
reported  having  held  county  institutes,  which  had 
meant  so  much  as  a  method  of  improving  the 
quality  of  teaching  in  the  70's  and  80's ;  sixty- 
seven  of  the  superintendents  had  not  held  these 
meetings  in  their  counties.  These  institutes 
were  revived,  and  under  the  lead  of  City  Su- 
perintendent E.  C.  Glass  of  Lynchburg  a 
"  School  of  Methods  "  was  operated  every  sum- 
mer, first,  at  Lynchburg  (1880),  then  at  Bed- 
ford City,  Roanoke,  and  Charlottesville.  This 
summer  school  became  the  leading  agency  of 
its  kind  in  the  state,  and  for  a  time  attracted 
attention  over  the  entire  South.  Leading  ex- 
perts in  all  the  fields  of  education  were  employed 
as  instructors.  The  attendance  of  teachers 
often  reached  1200. 

State  Superintendent  Massey  ordered  the 
254 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  FREE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

examination  for  certificates  to  be  held  at  the 
close  of  this  school  in  August  and  at  the  same 
date  all  over  the  state,  and  in  this  way  secured 
greater  control  over  the  matter  of  certificating 
teachers  than  had  yet  obtained  in  the  history 
of  the  state  school  system. 

State  Educational  Conference  Organized.  — 
At  the  session  of  the  summer  school  at  Bed- 
ford City,  in  July,  1891,  at  a  called  meeting  of 
the  superintendents  of  the  state,  the  Virginia 
State  Teachers'  Association  was  organized  and 
has  grown  to  such  proportions  as  to  attract 
from  two  to  three  thousand  teachers  at  its 
annual  meetings,  which  are  held  each  year  at 
the  Thanksgiving  holiday  season.  Nearly  5000 
Virginia  teachers  are  members  of  the  Associa- 
tion to-day  (1915). 

In  1894,  at  the  urgent  suggestion  of  Su- 
perintendent Massey,  the  Legislature  passed 
an  act  including  the  "  Summer  Institutes  "  as 
a  part  of  the  scheme  of  popular  education,  and 
set  aside  $2500  for  their  support.  With  the 
gift  from  the  Peabody  Fund  to  this  cause,  these 
schools    became    permanent    agencies    for    the 

255 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

training  of  teachers.  The  act  also  provided  a 
course  of  graded  instruction  for  the  teachers 
attending,  to  cover  a  period  of  three  years. 
The  attendance  upon  these  institutes  for  the 
year  1895  was  the  largest  ever  known  in  the  state. 

Another  event  in  the  administration  of  Su- 
perintendent Massey  was  an  attempt  to  open  the 
doors  of  the  University  of  Virginia  to  women. 
This  came  as  a  response  to  the  movement  for 
the  higher  education  of  women  in  the  state. 
This  scheme  provided  for  the  teaching  to  be 
done  nominally  under  the  supervision  of  the 
regular  professors  of  the  university.  The  plan 
permitted  no  women  to  attend  lectures  or  the 
exercises  of  the  university,  but  after  an  examina- 
tion a  certificate  of  proficiency  might  be  given. 
Only  one  woman  applied  and  the  plan  was 
finally  abandoned. 

After  a  visit  to  the  North,  Superintendent 
Massey  recommended  that  industrial  education 
be  introduced  into  the  schools.  He  highly 
commended  the  work  done  at  the  Hampton 
Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute  for  Negroes, 
where  training  in  the  trades  for  the  boys  and 

256 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  FREE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

domestic  science  for  the  girls  had  been  in- 
troduced. Superintendent  Massey's  final  re- 
port contains  interesting  figures  regarding  the 
illiteracy  in  the  state.  Of  the  665,533  persons 
of  school  age,  232,949  could  not  read  nor 
write;  117,592  were  negroes.  One-third  of  the 
entire  school  population  were  illiterate.  The 
state  superintendent  published  in  his  report  of 
1896-97  a  chart  of  illiteracy,  from  which  it 
appears  that  Virginia  was  the  seventh  state  in 
illiteracy,  the  order  being:  Virginia,  30.2  per 
cent,  North  Carolina,  35.7  per  cent,  Georgia 
38.9  per  cent,  Mississippi,  40  per  cent,  Ala- 
bama, 41  per  cent,  New  Mexico,  45.5  per  cent, 
South  Carolina,  45  per  cent,  and  Louisiana, 
45.8  per  cent.1 

The  final  report  of  Superintendent  Massey 
reveals  the  fact  that  there  were  sixty  high 
schools  in  the  state,  nearly  all  of  which  were  con- 
nected with  the  public  school  system,  the  details 
of  which  will  be  noted  in  another  chapter.  The 
following  recommendations  are  made  looking 
to   the   greater   efficiency   of   the  schools:    (1) 

1  See  School  Report,  1897. 

8  257 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

larger  school  funds,  (2)  more  efficient  teaching, 
(3)  closer  supervision,  (4)  graded  courses  of 
instruction  for  country  schools,  (5)  institutes 
for  normal  training,  (6)  school  libraries,  (7) 
county  high  schools,  (8)  a  state  Board  of  Exam- 
iners, (9)  better  schoolhouses. 

The  Administration  of  Hon.  Joseph  W. 
Southall.  —  The  most  notable  forward  move- 
ment during  this  administration  was  the  atten- 
tion and  emphasis  given  to  the  rural  schools. 
The  state  superintendent  sought  to  check  the 
"  ruinous  policy  of  the  multiplication  of  rural 
schools  caused  by  the  pressure  to  plant  a  school- 
house  in  every  little  country  neighborhood." 
He  urged  that  efficient  graded  schools  be  estab- 
lished in  the  country  districts  and  a  public 
high  school  in  every  county.  These  high 
schools  were  needed  to  articulate  the  common 
schools  with  the  university  and  other  higher 
institutions  of  learning  and  to  prepare  teachers 
for  the  elementary  schools.  He  repeats  the  rec- 
ommendation of  former  State  Superintendent 
Massey  that  a  state  Board  of  Examiners  be 
instituted  and  that  manual  training  be  intro- 

258 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  FREE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

duced  into  the  schools,  especially  in  the  negro 
schools. 

Summary.  —  The  public  school  system  had 
now  been  in  operation  for  thirty-two  years. 
During  that  time  it  had  found  a  permanent 
place  in  the  social  and  economic  system  in 
Virginia.  (1)  It  was  born  of  one  man,  Dr. 
Ruffner,  that  high-minded  statesman  and  friend 
of  public  education.  (2)  It  found  a  place  in  the 
state  only  after  having  withstood  the  most 
caustic  opposition,  largely  because  it  provided 
for  the  education  of  the  negro  race.  (3)  It 
developed  into  an  efficient  agent  for  the  educa- 
tion of  all  the  children  of  the  state,  although 
in  a  social  system  that  had  defeated  the  long 
efforts  of  such  a  man  as  Thomas  Jefferson,  in 
establishing  a  system  of  primary  schools.  (4) 
School  enrolment  had  increased  from  131,088 
to  361,772,  and  the  daily  attendance  from 
75,722  to  215,204.  The  percentage  of  attend- 
ance of  school  population  had  increased  from 
18.4  per  cent  to  nearly  40  per  cent.  The 
number  of  months  taught  had  increased  from 
4.66    to    6.40.     The    number    of    teachers    in- 

259 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

creased  from  3014  to  nearly  10,000.  (5)  School 
expenditures  had  likewise  shown  growth  com- 
mensurate with  the  growth  in  other  respects. 
The  total  state  fund  was  at  first  $362,000. 
After  thirty-two  years  it  was  $1,228,262. 
Teachers'  salaries  had  increased  from  $32.26 
per  month  to  $36.31  for  the  men,  and  from 
$26.33  to  $28.11  for  the  women.  School  prop- 
erty had  shown  the  remarkable  increase  from 
$188,680  to  $8,555,343.  (6)  A  system  of  elemen- 
tary schools  had  been  provided,  and  at  the  close 
of  this  period  high  schools  were  being  established. 
Summer  institutes  for  the  training  of  teachers 
in  pedagogical  method  had  been  developed  under 
county  and  state  auspices.  A  State  Normal 
School  had  been  established  at  Farmville  for 
women,  and  William  and  Mary  College  had 
been  subsidized  by  the  state  for  the  training 
of  men  teachers.  The  method  of  certification 
of  teachers  had  been  systematized,  and  a  uni- 
form list  of  text-books  for  the  schools  had  been 
adopted. 

All  this  was  substantial  progress,  but  there 
was  much  yet  to  be  done  to  bring  the  system 

260 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  FREE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

of  education  in  Virginia  to  a  state  of  still 
greater  efficiency.  In  1902  a  Constitutional 
Convention  was  called  and  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  state  was  revised,  particularly  re- 
garding educational  provisions.  The  subse- 
quent history  of  education  in  Virginia  is  marked 
by  a  renaissance  which  resulted  in  a  forward 
movement  which  will  stand  out  as  a  new  epoch, 
the  details  of  which  will  be  taken  up  in  a  subse- 
quent chapter. 


261 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE    DEVELOPMENT   OF    CITY    SCHOOL   SYSTEMS 

At  the  time  the  state  established  a  system  of 
public  schools  (1870)  three  Virginia  cities  had 
already  in  operation  a  system  of  public  edu- 
cation. These  were  Norfolk,  Petersburg,  and 
Richmond. 

City  Schools  of  Norfolk.  —  By  an  ordinance  of 
the  city  council,  Norfolk  established  a  system 
of  free  schools  in  1850.  The  city  was  laid  off 
into  four  school  districts,  and  a  school  com- 
missioner was  appointed  for  each.  For  the 
support  of  these  schools  a  tax  of  four  dollars 
was  levied  on  every  white  male  inhabitant 
over  twenty-one  years  of  age.  By  1848  a 
four-room  building  had  been  erected  in  each 
of  the  four  districts.  All  the  schools  of  one 
building  were  placed  under  one  administrator, 
who  was  styled  "  the  rector."  Thomas  C.  Tabb, 
Esq.,  one  of  the  most  prominent  lawyers  of  the 

262 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 

city,  was  put  in  charge  of  the  organization  and 
erection  of  school  buildings.  The  general  plan 
called  for  the  segregation  of  the  sexes,  the 
boys  occupying  one  room  and  the  girls  another. 
However,  in  1875,  the  boys  and  girls  of  the 
elementary  grades  occupied  the  same  room. 
The  grades  above  continued  the  same  plan  of 
separating  the  boys  and  girls.  When  the  state 
school  system  was  inaugurated,  the  city  schools 
of  Norfolk  were  taken  over  and  became  a  part 
of  the  new  state  system.  The  colored  people 
had  two  schools  under  a  colored  superintendent. 
In  1871  the  council  passed  an  ordinance  that 
there  should  be  a  colored  school  in  each  ward,  and 
these  should  be  under  the  same  commissioners 
and  the  same  superintendent  as  the  white  schools. 
In  the  year  1871  there  were  16  teachers  and 
865  pupils  in  the  free  schools.  The  city  ex- 
pended $11,472.76  on  its  schools  during  that 
year.  Dr.  Sears,  the  agent  of  the  Peabody 
Fund,  gave  $1000.  W.  W.  Lamb  was  the  first 
superintendent  appointed  by  the  state  Board  of 
Education.  He  had  been  serving  in  this  capac- 
ity previous  to  that  time.     In  1874  Gen.  R.  L. 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Page  was  appointed  to  fill  the  place  of  W.  W. 
Lamb,  who  had  died  the  same  year.  In 
1882  Rev.  Calvin  Blackwell  was  appointed  to 
succeed  General  Page,  and  in  1884  Maj. 
R.  G.  Banks  occupied  the  position  of  superin- 
tendent. 

Free  Schools  of  Petersburg.  —  A  free  school 
system  was  inaugurated  by  the  city  of  Peters- 
burg in  1868.  Dr.  Sears,  agent  of  the  Peabody 
Fund,  visited  the  city  and  proffered  $2000,  on 
the  condition  that  the  city  raise  $20,000  and 
organize  a  school  system  free  to  all  classes,  white 
and  colored,  rich  and  poor.1  The  city  council, 
after  some  months  of  consideration,  decided  to 
establish  a  free  school  system,  and  appointed 
nine  men  as  members  of  the  school  board.  The 
first  act  of  this  board  was  to  send  the  president 
to  northern  cities  to  study  the  school  systems 
there  and  to  purchase  text-books  and  equipment 
for  the  schools.  These  schools  were  opened  in 
the  fall  of  1868,  with  1500  pupils  in  attendance. 
The  report  of  the  second  year  shows  an  enrol- 

1  $1200  was  contributed  by  Mr.  Manly  of  Richmond,  who  was  the 
agent  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau. 

264 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 

ment  of  2661  pupils.  During  this  year  an  ex- 
cellent school  building  was  erected  and  dedicated 
with  elaborate  ceremonies  and  speeches.1  This 
building  cost  $65,000,  some  of  which  came  by 
will  from  a  Mr.  Anderson,  first  to  his  negro  body- 
guard, Jumbo,  and  at  his  death  was  to  be  used 
for  the  purpose  of  educating  the  poor  children 
of  Petersburg. 

S.  H.  Owen,  Esq.,  was  the  first  city  superin- 
tendent appointed  by  the  state  authorities. 
Before  this  the  city  had  been  under  the  wise 
management  of  an  active  Board  of  Education. 
From  the  first  the  city  of  Petersburg  was 
one  of  the  most  progressive  school  centres  in 
Virginia.  In  1875  Mr.  T.  P.  Leavenworth  was 
the  superintendent  of  schools.  During  that 
year,  he  published  a  unique  diagram  represent- 
ing the  average  weekly  enrolment  and  the 
average  daily  attendance  in  the  form  of  a  graph.2 
In  1878  the  city  showed  an  enrolment  of  2078 
pupils,  with  an  average    attendance  of   1428. 

1  This  was  the  first  public  school  building  in  Virginia.  One  of  the 
speakers  said :  "  We  have  not  come  to  dedicate  a  free  school  but  a  school 
that  costs,  a  school  for  which  every  parent  is  obliged  to  contribute." 

2  See  School  Report,  1875,  p.  115. 

265 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

In    1880    the    attendance    was    3055,    with    a 
school  population  of  7400. 

City  Schools  of  Richmond.  —  For  many  years 
Lancasterian  schools  were  in  operation  in  Rich- 
mond, but  they  were  under  the  control  of  semi- 
charitable  societies.  Public  schools  were  or- 
ganized in  1869.  A  petition,  signed  by  a  large 
number  of  citizens  without  distinction  of  party, 
prayed  the  city  council  to  establish  a  system 
of  public  schools.  The  committee  to  whom  the 
matter  was  referred  recommended  an  ordinance 
which  provided  for  an  appropriation  of  $15,000 
for  a  Board  of  Education,  consisting  of  nine 
members.  This  ordinance  was  passed,  but  the 
amount  appropriated  was  inadequate  and  addi- 
tional funds  were  procured  from  the  Freed- 
men's  Bureau  and  from  the  Peabody  Fund, 
these  two  gifts  amounting  to  another  $15,000. 
During  the  first  year  53  schools  were  opened, 
with  an  enrolment  of  2400  pupils.  A.  Wash- 
burne,  Esq.,  was  put  in  charge  as  superintend- 
ent. The  next  year  the  city  took  entire  con- 
trol of  the  schools,  both  white  and  colored,  and 
Mr.  J.  H.  Binford  was  elected  superintendent. 

266 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 

A  new  school  board  of  ten  members  was  ap- 
pointed and  an  appropriation  of  $42,625  was 
made  for  current  expenses.  Bonds  to  the 
amount  of  $100,000  were  issued  for  the  erection 
of  school  buildings.  Under  the  leadership  of 
Superintendent  Binford  the  schools  of  the  city 
rapidly  gained  the  confidence  of  the  people,  who 
very  generously  patronized  them.  In  April, 
1871,  the  schools  of  the  city  became  a  part  of 
the  state  system.  They  were  organized  into 
primary,  first  six  grades,  grammar,  four  grades, 
and  high  school,  thus  affording  an  opportunity 
for  excellent  training  for  the  children  of  the 
city. 

The  high  school  was  organized  in  1873, 
which  was  housed  in  a  rented  building,  and  Mr. 
W.  F.  Fox  was  appointed  principal.  That  year 
there  were  enrolled  in  the  city  schools  5328, 
which  was  two-thirds  of  the  entire  school 
population  of  the  city.  Under  the  wise  ad- 
ministration of  Mr.  Binford  the  city  schools 
were  organized,  the  best  methods  of  teaching 
introduced,  the  funds  for  public  school  purposes 
were  increased  from  year  to  year,  new  buildings 

267 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

were  erected  and  public  confidence  heightened, 
so  that  the  system  was  a  safe  basis  for  the  future 
development  of  public  education  in  the  city  of 
Richmond.  In  1899  Principal  Fox  was  made 
superintendent  of  city  schools,  and  held  the 
position  until  his  death  in  1908.  In  his  report 
of  1906  he  says : 

For  the  session  1870-71  we  had  73  schools,  now  we 
have  236 ;  then  there  were  73  teachers,  now  we  have  230 ; 
then  our  enrollment  was  3156,  now  it  is  11,749 ;  then  our 
general  expenses  amounted  to  $42,625,  now  they  amount 
to  $139,827.09 ;  then  the  cost  of  education  per  capita  was 
$13.35 ;  now,  including  a  5  per  cent  interest  on  bonds 
issued  for  school  purposes,  it  is  $13.57;  then  the  city 
owned  not  a  single  house,  now  it  owns  17  buildings  valued 
at  about  $400,000  :  then  comparatively  few  of  our  citizens 
patronized  the  public  schools ;  now  the  public  schools  are 
so  well  patronized  that  75  per  cent  of  our  entire  school 
population  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen  are 
taught  in  them.  Complaint  is  sometimes  made  of  the 
increased  cost  of  our  public  schools.  It  is  only  reasonable 
that  the  education  of  11,749  children  should  cost  more  than 
the  education  of  3156 ;  nevertheless,  the  fact  that  the  cost 
per  capita  is  but  a  few  cents  greater  shows  that  the  in- 
creased funds  have  not  been  wasted,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  have  been  expended  most  judiciously  and  economi- 
cally. Nor  do  I  see  how  the  amount  expended  can  ever 
be  less,  or  in  fact  how  it  can  again  be  so  small.     If  our 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 

schools  retain  their  excellence  and  popularity,  there  must 
be  an  increasing  demand  upon  them  with  the  increase  of 
our  population.  It  has  come  to  be  a  matter  of  city  pride 
to  be  classed  as  a  city  of  100,000  inhabitants.  As  we  go 
on  towards  that  standard  the  expenses  of  our  schools 
must  necessarily  increase;  and  all  that  our  people  can 
reasonably  ask  of  the  school  authorities  is  to  see  to  it  that 
the  cost  per  capita  shall  be  just  and  equitable. 

Subsequent  City  Systems  Established.  —  At 
the  inauguration  of  the  state  public  school 
system,  the  cities  of  Alexandria,  Lynchburg, 
Fredericksburg,  Staunton,  Winchester,  Dan- 
ville, Williamsburg,  and  Portsmouth  established 
systems  of  public  schools.  The  city  of  Lynch- 
burg took  steps  to  organize  a  city  system  in 
September,  1870.  A.  F.  Biggers,  Esq.,  was  ap- 
pointed the  first  superintendent  of  the  city. 
He  was  also  designated  superintendent  of  the 
county  of  Campbell.  At  first  the  city  wards 
were  organized  under  the  same  plans  as  the 
districts  in  the  counties.  Later  (1871),  by  act 
of  the  Legislature,  the  trustees  were  organized 
into  a  school  board,  which  body  had  entire 
control  of  the  city  schools.  Superintendent 
Biggers  made  a  tour    of    the   northern   states 

269 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  school  systems 
there.  After  his  return,  the  committee  reported 
a  plan  of  organization  and  rules  for  the  conduct 
of  the  schools,  which  proved  to  be  so  wise  that 
they  have  remained  substantially  unchanged 
to  the  present  time.  In  1871,  $30,000  was  ap- 
propriated by  the  city  council  for  buildings  and 
$8000  for  current  expenses.  The  policy  at 
first  was  to  segregate  the  boys  and  girls,  but 
later  coeducation  prevailed.  The  question  of 
a  high  school  was  early  agitated.  In  1871 
provision  was  made  for  two  high  schools,  one 
for  boys  and  another  for  girls.  In  1878  an 
effort  was  made  to  abolish  the  idea  of  maintain- 
ing high  schools.  As  a  result,  there  was  no 
high  school  in  the  session  of  1878-79,  but  in  the 
next  election  for  councilmen,  the  "  school  ques- 
tion "  was  made  an  issue  and  the  election 
showed  a  decided  majority  for  the  reestablish- 
ment  of  the  high  schools  and  rejuvenation  of 
the  whole  school  system.  In  1879  Superintend- 
ent Biggers  died  at  the  age  of  forty,  and  Mr. 
E.  C.  Glass  was  appointed  to  take  his  place, 
and   has    held    the    position    ever    since.     Mr. 

270 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 

Glass's  administration  is  an  example  of  long 
service  as  city  superintendent,  and  as  a  result 
the  Lynchburg  schools  have  long  had  the  repu- 
tation of  being  the  best  organized  and  most 
efficient  city  system  of  education  in  the  state. 
Mr.  Glass  has  been  identified  with  all  the  educa- 
tional movements  of  the  state,  particularly  in 
the  agencies  for  training  teachers.  He  was 
the  prime  mover  in  the  inauguration  of  a  system 
of  "  Summer  Schools "  for  teachers  and  was 
for  a  number  of  years  the  conductor  of  the 
summer  school  at  the  University  of  Virginia 
which  grew  to  such  large  proportions  as  to  gain 
a  national  reputation. 

City  Schools  of  Alexandria. — Alexandria  had 
free  schools  early  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
A  school  was  in  operation  in  1732.  In  1758 
a  schoolhouse  was  erected  in  the  "  Market 
Square."  The  money  was  raised  by  lottery. 
This  school  was  the  famous  Alexandria  Academy, 
to  which  George  Washington  gave  a  part  of  the 
endowment.  These  schools  were  practically 
free  schools,  and  the  city  officials  always  had 
certain  control  over  them.     In  1830  this  Acad- 

271 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

emy  was  conducted  according  to  the  Lan- 
castrian System,  then  a  form  of  school  adminis- 
tration in  vogue  in  the  larger  cities  in  America. 
In  1871  these  schools,  conducted  so  long  as 
free  schools  under  an  endowment,  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  state  public  school  authorities 
and  the  present  city  system  was  organized. 
The  attendance  at  first  was  640  children.  The 
following  years  there  was  a  falling  off  in  attend- 
ance to  550  in  1874,  but  after  that  the  attend- 
ance greatly  increased.  In  1885  there  were 
1340  pupils  attending  the  public  schools  of  that 
city. 

City  Schools  of  Fredericksburg.  —  The  people 
of  Fredericksburg  have  from  a  very  early  date 
maintained  "  free  schools."  The  "  charity  " 
school  at  Fredericksburg  had  a  long  and  in- 
teresting history.  The  public  school  system 
was  inaugurated  in  1870.  These  schools  up  to 
1883  were  operated  as  a  district  of  Spottsyl- 
vania  County.  This  was  done  in  a  number  of 
other  instances  in  the  state  under  a  stringent 
interpretation  of  the  constitution.  Mr.  John 
Howison  was  appointed  first  superintendent  of 

272 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 

the  city  and  county.  In  1883  the  city  entered 
upon  a  separate  and  independent  management 
of  its  schools,  with  Gen.  Daniel  Ruggles  as 
superintendent.  These  schools  were  conducted 
in  rented  quarters  until  1885,  when,  with  an 
appropriation  from  the  council,  two  brick  build- 
ings were  erected  at  a  cost  of  $10,000.  In  the 
80's,  when  the  Peabody  Institutes  were  held  in 
different  parts  of  the  state,  Fredericksburg  was 
often  designated  as  one  of  the  places  for  these 
summer  schools.  In  1885  an  "  intermediate 
grade,"  or  a  high  school,  was  organized,  with 
forty-five  pupils.  Professor  Jos.  G.  Swartz  was 
principal. 

City  Schools  of  Staunton.  —  As  in  some  of 
the  other  cities,  the  Staunton  schools  were 
operated  at  first  as  a  school  district  of  Augusta 
County,  and  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
superintendent  of  that  county.  Major  Jed 
Hotchkiss  was  appointed  to  serve  as  the  first 
superintendent,  but,  on  account  of  his  having 
taken  an  important  part  in  the  Civil  War,  he 
could  not  qualify,  whereupon  Dr.  Barnes  Sears, 
agent  of  the  Peabody  Fund,  who  was  a  resident 
t  273 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

of  that  city,  was  unanimously  appointed  as 
superintendent,  and  Major  Hotchkiss  per- 
formed the  duties  of  the  office.  The  basements 
of  the  Baptist  and  Lutheran  churches  were 
rented  for  school  purposes,  and  the  schools 
were  opened  in  December  of  the  year  1870. 
In  1871  the  authorities  procured  the  buildings 
of  the  Staunton  Academy  for  public  school 
purposes.  In  the  fall  of  that  year  Dr.  Sears 
resigned  as  county  superintendent  and  Mr.  J.  E. 
Guy  was  appointed  in  his  stead.  In  1873, 
at  the  recommendation  of  the  Staunton  Board 
of  Trustees,  the  city  was  made  an  independent 
unit  for  school  administration,  and  Mr.  J.  J. 
Ladd,  then  principal  of  the  High  School,  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  city  schools, 
with  a  salary  of  $1500.  Dr.  Sears  gave  $1790 
annually  to  the  support  of  the  schools  out  of 
the  Peabody  Fund.  The  colored  children  were 
taught  at  first  by  colored  teachers  from  the 
North,  but,  on  account  of  these  not  being 
exemplary  in  conduct,  the  colored  citizens  of 
the  city  petitioned  the  council  to  give  them  white 
teachers,  which  petition  was  granted.     In  1875 

274 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 

the  city  purchased  the  property  of  the  old 
Wesleyan  Female  Institute,  opposite  the  Episco- 
pal Church,  and  used  it  for  public  school  pur- 
poses. In  1878  Dr.  R.  S.  Hamilton  was  made 
superintendent.  After  a  visit  to  Richmond 
he  instituted  a  complete  graded  system  in  the 
schools.  In  1882  Mr.  William  A.  Bowles  was 
elected  superintendent.  He  had  served  as  prin- 
cipal of  the  high  school  for  a  number  of  years. 
The  schools  prospered  under  his  management, 
and  in  1885  there  were  enrolled  934  pupils, 
443  white  and  491  colored.  Colored  teachers 
were  again  put  in  charge  of  the  colored  schools. 
City  Schools  of  Portsmouth.  —  Public  senti- 
ment was  favorable  to  public  education  in  Ports- 
mouth long  before  the  act  establishing  a  state 
public  school  system.  In  1845,  when  Norfolk 
County  established  a  system  of  public  schools 
for  all  the  children,  this  city  was  a  part  of  the 
county  unit,  and  maintained  schools  up  to  the 
war.  They  had  various  sources  of  revenue 
with  which  to  operate  the  schools:  (1)  the 
Literary  Fund,  (2)  direct  taxes,  (3)  tuition 
fees,  (4)  receipts  from  Norfolk  County  ferries. 

275 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

After  1870  the  Peabody  Fund  gave  annually 
from  $1000  to  $1500  to  encourage  the  organiza- 
tion of  more  effective  schools.  The  city  owned 
several  good  buildings,  including  a  brick  building 
for  the  colored  schools.  Mr.  James  F.  Crocker 
was  the  first  superintendent,  and  held  this 
position  from  1870  to  1882.  Mr.  G.  F.  Edwards 
was  appointed  superintendent  at  this  time  and 
held  the  position  for  a  great  many  years. 

Other  City  School  Systems.  —  Williamsburg, 
Winchester,  and  Danville  organized  systems 
under  the  state  law  in  1870.  In  each  case  the 
policy  was  to  organize  as  the  district  of  the 
county  in  which  they  were  locating.  This  never 
was  a  very  satisfactory  plan.  The  schools 
did  not  prosper  under  this  arrangement.  In 
these  particular  centres  public  education  was 
not  popular  and  a  laissez-faire  attitude  charac- 
terized the  interest  the  people  took  in  the 
public  schools.  The  county  of  James  City,  in 
which  Williamsburg  is  located,  voted  upon  the 
proposition  to  levy  a  tax  and  establish  a  sys- 
tem of  public  schools  for  the  county  under 
the  act  of   1845,   but   the   idea  was   rejected. 

276 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 

Williamsburg  and  Winchester  for  a  long  time 
operated  under  a  plan  in  which  the  city  was  a 
part  or  a  district  of  the  county.  Danville  was 
definitely  organized  as  an  independent  school  unit 
about  the  year  1876.  It  has  recently  erected  some 
splendid  modern  buildings,  and  the  city  system 
has  been  toned  up  to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency. 

The  city  school  systems  of  Roanoke,  Newport 
News,  and  Bristol  are  of  much  later  development. 
These  towns  have  grown  into  cities  within  the 
last  quarter  of  a  century.  The  school  systems  of 
each  of  these  cities  are  organized  according  to 
the  most  modern  standards  of  public  education. 

Summary.  —  The  cities  of  Norfolk,  Petersburg, 
and  Richmond  established  public  free  schools 
a  few  years  before  the  state  system  was  inau- 
gurated. These  cities  were  stimulated  by  gifts 
from  the  Peabody  Fund  and  the  Freedmen's 
Bureau,  and  became  models  for  other  centres  of 
population  in  the  state,  in  the  way  of  providing 
an  education  at  public  expense  for  all  the  chil- 
dren, rich  and  poor,  white  and  colored. 

The  other  cities  did  not  organize  public 
schools  until  the  state  system  was  established 

277 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN   VIRGINIA 

in  1870.  Even  then,  they  sought  to  fulfil  the 
provisions  of  the  constitution  and  the  subse- 
quent act  of  the  Legislature  regarding  public 
education  in  the  most  perfunctory  way,  usually 
organizing  the  city  schools  as  a  part  of  the 
county  organization  with  the  same  superintend- 
ent. There  was  no  school  property  or  equip- 
ment and  no  local  funds  to  meet  the  running 
expenses  of  the  schools.  The  cities  were  slow 
to  provide  funds  by  taxation,  or  otherwise  ap- 
propriate moneys  for  public  school  purpose. 
After  a  few  years  the  effectiveness  of  the  schools 
was  demonstrated,  and  the  city  council  set  aside 
an  annual  budget  for  schools  and  buildings, 
beginning  with  amounts  running  from  $10,000 
to  $20,000.  These  amounts  were  increased 
from  year  to  year  as  the  schools  have  grown  in 
efficiency,  and  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  public 
education  has  taken  definite  form.  Dr.  Sears 
was  wise  in  distributing  the  Peabody  Fund  to 
the  cities  in  order  that  they  might  demonstrate 
the  effectiveness  of  public  education  for  all  the 
children.  These  city  systems  became  the 
models  for  the  larger  towns  and  the  more  pro- 

278 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 

gressive  counties  to  copy.  They  soon  learned 
that  public  education  when  rightly  administered 
was  not  a  cheap  thing  and  could  not  depend  for 
its  support  upon  the  meagre  allotments  from 
the  Literary  Fund  or  other  amounts  from 
philanthropic  sources,  but  its  main  support 
must  come  from  local  taxation. 


279 


CHAPTER  XV 

HIGHER   EDUCATION   FOR   WOMEN   IN   VIRGINIA 

The  first  attempt  ever  made  in  Virginia  to 
establish  a  school  of  high  grade  for  girls  was 
about  the  year  1840.  A  few  Methodist  breth- 
ren, without  the  formal  sanction  of  conference, 
procured  a  charter  for  a  college  under  the 
name  and  title  of  "  Buckingham  Female  Col- 
lege." They  located  it  in  Buckingham  County, 
erected  buildings  and  opened  for  pupils.  It 
started  off  with  very  flourishing  prospects, 
but  at  the  end  of  a  year  or  two  it  came  to  a 
disastrous  close,  never  again  to  be  opened.1 

The  pioneer  institutions  for  higher  learning 
for  women  in  Virginia  that  have  endured  are 
Mary  Baldwin  Seminary  at  Staunton  and 
Hollins  College  near  Roanoke.  Both  these 
schools  were  established  in  1842  and  within 
the  period  of  the  great  "  educational  awaken- 

1  See  address  of  Dr.  Chas.  L.  Cocke  in  the  Semi-Annual,  1896,  p.  61. 

280 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  FOR  WOMEN 

ing  "  in  America  (1830-50).  Both  were  origi- 
nally established  by  men  from  the  North, 
interested  in  education.  This  was  the  period  of 
the  academies,  and  the  tendency  was  to  estab- 
lish schools  for  girls  on  the  same  plan  as  those 
for  boys,  only  the  former  usually  went  by  the 
name  of  "  seminary "  and  too  there  was  a 
differentiation  in  the  curricula.  The  schools 
for  girls  usually  contained  courses  in  literature, 
music,  and  art,  in  lieu  of  the  old  traditional 
subjects  of  the  ancient  languages  and  mathe- 
matics, but  Mary  Baldwin  Seminary  and  Hollins 
College,  early  in  their  history,  introduced  ad- 
vanced courses  which  paralleled  the  courses 
offered  in  higher  institutions  of  learning  for 
men.  At  a  later  period  other  institutions  of 
advanced  grade  for  women  were  established  in 
different  parts  of  the  state. 

Origin  and  Early  History  of  Hollins  College.  — 
The  events  connected  with  the  origin  and  early 
history  of  Hollins  College  are  unique.  The 
Rev.  Joshua  Bradley,  a  gentleman  from  the 
North,  came  to  this  section  of  the  state.  He 
was  a  minister  of  the  Baptist  faith  and  possessed 

281 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

a  strong  enthusiasm  for  education.  The 
buildings  and  grounds  of  Botetourt  Springs, 
one  time  a  popular  summering  place,  but  at 
that  time  in  a  state  of  decay,  came  to  the 
observation  of  Mr.  Bradley,  and  he  conceived 
the  idea  of  establishing  a  school  of  high  grade 
for  both  sexes.  He  proceeded  to  organize  a 
joint  stock  company  under  the  imposing  title 
of  "  Valley  Union  Education  Society  of  Vir- 
ginia." It  was  not  to  be  a  sectarian  school, 
but  an  enterprise  for  the  general  good  of  society. 
Mr.  Bradley  was  made  principal  of  the  school 
and  served  in  that  capacity  for  the  first  year. 
The  school  was  opened  in  the  fall  of  1842,  with 
nearly  one  hundred  students.  Before  the  first 
session  came  to  a  close  the  school  became  de- 
moralized on  account  of  financial  difficulties 
and  lack  of  administrative  ability  on  the  part 
of  the  principal.  Mr.  Bradley  resigned  at 
the  close  of  the  first  session  and  left  the  state. 
The  school  continued  its  work  with  varying 
degrees  of  success,  under  different  managers, 
until  1846,  when  Dr.  Charles  L.  Cocke  was 
called  from  Richmond  College  to  take  charge 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  FOR  WOMEN 

of  the  institution,  which  was  then  known  as 
the  "Valley  Union  Seminary."  In  1851  the 
department  for  boys  was  abandoned,  and  the 
name  of  the  school  as  chartered  was  "  Female 
Seminary  at  Botetourt  Springs."  This  was  the 
first  chartered  institution  in  the  state  for  girls, 
with  broad  systematic  courses  and  high  stand- 
ards of  scholarship.  In  1853  the  school  was 
filled  with  girls,  studying  Latin,  mathematics, 
and  the  philosophies.  In  1855  the  college  was 
put  on  a  more  substantial  basis,  standards  and 
policies  were  fixed,  and  the  institution  started 
upon  an  era  of  continued  and  increasing  useful- 
ness in  the  field  of  higher  education  for  women. 
The  outstanding  stock  of  the  old  corporation 
was  bought  and  the  institution  was  placed  un- 
der the  control  of  a  self -perpetuating  board  of 
trustees.  All  this  was  made  possible  by  the 
efforts  and  generosity  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  John 
Hollins  of  Lynchburg,  who,  at  the  suggestion 
of  Dr.  Charles  L.  Cocke,  prepared  the  plans 
and  gave  varying  amounts  at  different  times 
to    the    school.1     This    was    the    occasion    for 

1  The  total  amount  received  from  this  source  was  $19,000. 

283 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

changing  the  name  to  Hollins  Institute,  by 
which  title  it  was  known  up  to  1910,  when  the 
name  was  changed  to  Hollins  College. 

During  the  period  of  the  Civil  War,  the  school 
kept  its  doors  open  and  had  an  average  of  130 
students  in  attendance.  From  1865  to  1877 
the  school  maintained  a  "  normal  department," 
with  the  following  stated  aims :  "  (1)  to  give 
the  most  exact  and  critical  scholarship;  (2)  to 
instruct  the  young  ladies  in  the  best  methods  of 
teaching;  (3)  to  give  them  some  experience  in 
discipline  and  management  of  a  school."  This 
was  the  period  of  the  inauguration  of  a  state 
public  school  system  under  Dr.  Wm.  H. 
Ruffner,  who  pleaded  for  the  establishment  of 
normal  schools  for  the  preparation  of  teachers. 
After  the  war  the  school  enlarged  its  plans  and 
students  came  from  other  states  as  well  as 
from  Virginia. 

The  College  Plant  and  Equipment.  —  The 
main  buildings  at  Hollins  College  are  con- 
centrated into  a  conveniently  arranged  quad- 
rangle, with  colonnades  enabling  the  students 
and  faculty  to  pass  to  any  part  of  the  premises 

284 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  FOR  WOMEN 

under  shelter.  There  are  nine  brick  buildings, 
designed  especially  for  college  purposes,  and 
dormitories  that  afford  accommodations  for  a 
full  faculty  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  students. 
These  buildings  are  completely  equipped  with 
the  most  modern  appliances,  such  as  scientific 
laboratories,  a  library  of  6000  volumes,  offices 
and  class  rooms,  dining  hall,  completely  equipped 
infirmary,  and  professors'  homes.  The  most 
modern  sanitary  conditions  are  maintained. 
Besides  the  immediate  college  premises,  a  farm 
of  700  acres,  400  of  which  are  under  cultivation, 
belongs  to  the  college. 

The  Curricula.  —  Hollins  College  has  from 
the  first  constantly  maintained  a  high  standard 
of  scholarship,  although  she  was  forced  to  main- 
tain a  preparatory  department  and  a  wide  range 
of  electives  up  to  a  few  years  ago,  on  account 
of  the  lack  of  standardized  systems  of  secondary 
education  in  the  state  and  in  the  South.  The 
plan  at  present  is  to  abandon  the  preparatory 
department  as  soon  as  possible.1 

The  requirements  for  admission   to   Hollins 

1  A  preparatory  department  existed  there  in  1912-18. 
285 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

College  for  work  leading  to  a  degree  are  fourteen 
units  of  secondary  school  work.  Students  are 
admitted  to  elective  courses,  such  as  music, 
art,  and  expression,  when  they  have  had  suffi- 
cient preparation  to  pursue  these  subjects  with 
profit.  The  degree  of  A.B.  is  conferred  upon 
students  who  complete  sixty  hours  of  work, 
thirty-one  of  which  are  prescribed  in  the  fields 
of  English,  modern  and  ancient  languages, 
history,  mathematics,  and  the  sciences.  Out 
of  7000  students  that  have  attended  Hollins, 
256  have  received  the  A.B.  degree.  The 
graduates  from  Hollins  are  admitted  to  full 
graduate  standing  in  the  higher  universities. 

Ideals  and  Policies.  —  The  policy  of  Hollins 
College  has  always  been  non-sectarian.  How- 
ever, it  maintains  the  highest  Christian  ideals 
and  its  student  body  includes  representatives 
from  all  the  various  church  denominations. 
The  atmosphere  is  that  of  a  cultured  home  where 
all  the  womanly  virtues  are  encouraged,  such 
as  health,  culture,  social  grace,  scholarship, 
patriotism,  and  high  moral  and  religious  tone. 
In  all  the  long  service  of  this  institution  it  has 

286 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  FOR  WOMEN 

persistently  maintained  these  as  ideals,  and  Hol- 
lins  College  has  set  the  pace  and  led  the  way 
for  many  institutions  of  higher  learning  for 
women  in  Virginia  and  throughout  the  South. 
Mary  Baldwin  Seminary.  —  Mary  Baldwin 
Seminary  at  Staunton  had  its  origin  in  "  Au- 
gusta Female  Seminary,"  which  was  planned 
and  opened  in  1842.  The  Rev.  Rufus  W. 
Bailey,  a  native  of  Maine,  who  had  been  en- 
gaged in  educational  work  in  South  Carolina, 
came  to  Staunton  and  sought  the  acquaintance 
of  Presbyterian  ministers  and  people  of  that 
faith  with  the  idea  of  establishing  a  high-grade 
seminary  for  the  education  of  girls.  After 
many  conferences  with  leading  Presbyterians 
of  Staunton  and  Augusta  counties,  a  plan  was 
adopted,  and  a  board  of  trustees,  consisting  of 
fifteen  members,  was  appointed.  The  object 
of  the  school,  as  stated  in  the  plan,  is  to  "  afford 
the  means  of  a  thorough  literary  and  Christian 
education  to  the  female  youth  of  this  portion 
of  our  country."  The  board  regulations  left 
the  matter  of  arranging  a  course  of  study  and 
selection  of  text-books  to  the  principal,  but  it 

287 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

distinctly  stipulated  that  "  the  course  shall 
always  contemplate  a  daily  recitation  by  all 
the  pupils  able  to  read,  of  a  portion  of  sacred 
Scriptures." 

The  Rev.  R.  W.  Bailey  was  elected  principal 
and  his  wife  an  assistant.  The  seminary  was 
opened  in  the  fall  of  1842,  in  temporary  quarters, 
with  about  fifty  students  in  attendance.  There 
were  no  boarding  arrangements  connected  with 
the  school,  but  the  few  students  coming  from 
the  country  around  found  board  with  friends 
in  private  families.  The  first  session  was  so 
successful  that  the  board  of  trustees  in- 
augurated an  effort  to  purchase  a  site  and  to 
erect  suitable  buildings. 

In  the  fall  of  1843  an  arrangement  was  made 
between  the  trustees  of  the  seminary  and  the 
Presbyterian  congregation,  by  which  the  build- 
ing for  the  seminary  was  to  be  erected  on  the 
lot  belonging  to  and  adjoining  the  church. 
One  of  the  conditions  was  that  one  room  in 
the  seminary  building  was  to  be  used  by  the 
church,  so  long  as  the  pastor  should  be  in  full 
communion  with  the  Presbyterian   Church  of 

288 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  FOR  WOMEN 

the  United  States,  known  as  the  "  Old  School 
Presbyterian  Church."  In  turn,  the  trustees 
of  the  church  gave  the  lot  in  perpetuity,  pro- 
vided that  three-fourths  of  the  trustees  of  the 
seminary  were  ministers  or  members  of  the 
Old  School  Presbyterian  Church.  The  main 
building  in  the  present  group  is  the  one  erected 
at  that  time  and  under  those  conditions.  The 
corner-stone  of  this  building  was  laid  with  elab- 
orate ceremonies  on  June  15,  1844.  Among 
the  articles  placed  in  the  stone  was  a  copy  of 
the  Bible,  with  the  superscription :  "  The 
only  rule  of  faith  and  the  first  text-book  of 
The  Augusta  Female  Seminary." 

The  second  year  of  the  school  there  were 
sixty  pupils  in  attendance,  among  whom  was 
Miss  Mary  Baldwin,  who  later  became  principal 
of  the  school  and  under  whose  long  and  wise 
administration  the  school  attained  its  high 
standard  and  national  reputation.  According 
to  a  board  regulation,  it  was  the  custom  to  re- 
quire all  the  pupils  to  assemble  in  the  church 
every  Sunday  morning  for  the  purpose  of 
reciting  to  the  principal  or  other  teachers  the 
v  289 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

catechism  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  and  such 
Scripture  lessons  as  the  principal  should  ap- 
point. In  1849  Mr.  Bailey  resigned  and  left 
the  state. 

From  this  time  to  the  Civil  War  the  school 
passed  through  a  critical  period  of  financial 
and  administrative  embarrassment.  During 
this  period,  five  different  men  held  the  position 
of  principal,  some  of  whom  remained  for  only 
a  part  of  the  year. 

In  1863  Miss  Mary  Baldwin  and  Miss 
McClung  were  induced  by  the  secretary  of  the 
board  of  trustees  to  take  full  charge  of  the 
school  and  operate  it  without  any  responsibility 
to  the  board  of  trustees. 

The  School  under  Miss  Baldwin.  —  The 
school  opened  under  Miss  Baldwin's  administra- 
tion in  the  fall  of  1863,  with  eighty  students, 
twenty-two  of  whom  were  boarders.  She  called 
to  her  assistance  some  accomplished  teachers, 
and  the  school  prospered.  The  standard  for 
graduation  was  determined  upon  by  the  advice 
of  Dr.  McGuffey  of  the  University  of  Virginia. 
This  standard  was  proficiency  in  the  following 

290 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  FOR  WOMEN 

fields  of  learning:  (1)  English  literature,  (2) 
history,  (3)  mental  and  moral  sciences,  (4) 
mathematics,  (5)  natural  science,  (6)  ancient 
languages,  and  (7)  modern  languages. 

The  school  gained  in  popularity  from  year 
to  year.  In  1869  there  were  13  teachers  and 
137  students,  representing  eleven  states.  The 
school  continued  to  acquire  property  and  en- 
large its  equipment.  In  1871  a  deed  of  lease 
from  the  trustees  was  executed  to  Miss  Baldwin 
for  a  term  of  twenty  years,  in  lieu  of  improve- 
ments that  she  had  made  upon  the  property. 
All  this  was  substantial  progress,  and  the 
school  found  a  permanent  place  as  an  insti- 
tution for  the  higher  education  of  young 
women. 

In  1895  the  legislature  granted  the  school  a 
new  charter  which  provided  for  the  change  of 
name  to  "  Mary  Baldwin  Seminary  "  and  gave 
it  authority  to  grant  degrees.  Miss  Baldwin 
died  in  1897,  leaving  to  the  seminary  large  sums 
which  she  had  accumulated  during  her  success- 
ful life.  Miss  Ella  C.  Weimar  succeeded  her 
as  principal.     This   lady  had  been  connected 

291 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

with  the  school  as  a  member  of  the  faculty  since 
1873,  the  last  years  occupying  the  position  of 
assistant  principal. 

Present  Buildings  and  Equipment.  —  The 
school  at  present  has  a  complete  plant  in  highly 
concentrated  form,  built  around  a  city  block 
with  a  central  court.  It  has  accommodations 
for  250  students.  The  school  has  long  had  the 
reputation  of  maintaining  high  standards  of 
scholarship  and  a  deeply  moral  and  Christian 
atmosphere.  Elective  courses  in  elocution,  art, 
and  music  have  always  characterized  the  cur- 
ricula of  this  school. 

Mary  Baldwin  Seminary  started  as  a  strictly 
sectarian  school  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church.  While  this  has  char- 
acterized the  policy  of  the  school,  nevertheless 
its  student  body  is  made  up  of  representatives 
from  all  the  leading  denominations.  It  draws 
its  students  from  a  large  territory,  twenty-four 
states  being  represented  at  present.  From 
1866  to  1904,  103  young  ladies  completed 
the  full  curricula  for  graduation.  A  few  de- 
grees have  been  conferred,  but  it  is  not  the 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  FOR  WOMEN 

policy  of  the  school  at  present  to  confer  any 
degrees.1 

Randolph-Macon  Woman's  College.  —  The 
Randolph-Macon  Board  of  Trustees  was  in- 
corporated in  1830  and  was  empowered  by  the 
charter  to  establish  and  conduct  educational 
institutions  in  any  part  of  Virginia.  Under 
this  authority,  it  controls  Randolph-Macon 
College  for  men  at  Ashland,  Randolph-Macon 
Academies  for  boys  at  Bedford  City  and  Front 
Royal,  and  Randolph-Macon  Institute  for  girls 
at  Danville. 

In    1891    this    Board  was   intrusted  with   a 

large  fund  raised   by  subscription   in  the  city 

of  Lynchburg,  and  asked  to  create  a  college  for 

women  that  should  afford  higher  educational 

advantages  equal  to  those  of  the  best  colleges 

for  men  in  Virginia.     The  following  statement 

expresses  the  purpose  of  the  founders. 

We  wish  to  establish  in  Virginia  a  college  where  our 
young  women  may  obtain  an  education  equal  to  that 
given  in  any  of  our  best  colleges  for  men,  and  under 
environment  in  harmony  with  the  highest  ideals  of  woman- 

1  Mary  Baldwin  Seminary  is  given  place  in  this  discussion  because  of 
its  historical  background. 

293 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

hood ;  where  the  dignity  and  strength  of  fully  developed 
faculties  and  the  charm  of  the  highest  culture  may  be 
acquired  by  our  daughters  without  loss  to  woman's  crown- 
ing glory,  —  her  gentleness  and  grace. 

This  institution  had  no  early  period  of 
struggle.  It,  as  it  were,  came  full  grown  into 
existence,  and  its  ideals  and  equipment  were 
fully  thought  out  and  standardized  from  the 
first.  It  went  straight  toward  its  goal,  that 
of  a  high  standard  of  scholarship  and  the 
purest  Christian  and  cultural  environment. 

Buildings  and  Equipment.  —  The  buildings 
for  this  college  were  erected  near  the  city  of 
Lynchburg  on  an  eminence  facing  Rivermont 
Avenue  and  overlooking  the  valley  of  the 
James  River.  The  main  central  building  was 
completed  in  1893  and  the  school  opened  in 
the  fall  of  that  year  with  Dr.  W.  W.  Smith  as 
president.  Since  then,  other  buildings  have 
been  added  in  the  form  of  wings  and  annexes, 
until  at  present  the  group  presents  one  of  the 
most  attractive  forms  of  college  architecture  in 
this  country.  The  buildings  have  a  sweeping 
frontage  of  over  seven  hundred  feet. 

294 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  FOR  WOMEN 

These  buildings  contain  a  full  college  equip- 
ment and  appliances  such  as  scientific  labora- 
tories, a  library  of  ten  thousand  volumes,  a 
gymnasium,  society  and  fraternity  halls,  dining 
hall,  recitation  and  lecture  rooms,  a  museum, 
and  dormitory  capacity  for  about  six  hundred 
students. 

Curricula  and  Standards.  —  The  college  from 
the  first  laid  down  a  standard  of  full  college 
requirement  for  graduation  and  an  entrance 
requirement  equal  to  the  work  done  in  the  first 
grade  high  schools  of  four  years'  course.  The 
requirements  at  present  are  fifteen  units  of 
secondary  work.  The  requirements  for  gradua- 
tion for  the  A.B.  degree  are  sixty  hours'  work, 
thirty  of  which  are  required  in  the  following 
fields  of  learning:  English,  ancient  languages, 
mathematics,  history,  and  political  science, 
modern  languages,  natural  science,  Bible,  and 
philosophy.  Curricula  are  offered  for  the 
Master's  degree.  Special  elective  courses  are 
offered  in  the  fields  of  music  and  art,  and  a 
certificate  is  awarded  for  the  satisfactory  com- 
pletion  of   this   work.     Full   courses   in   Bible 

295 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION   IN  VIRGINIA 

study  are  offered,  and  credit  toward  a  degree  is 
given  for  this  work. 

Randolph-Macon  College  for  women  is 
operated,  fostered,  and  controlled  by  the 
Methodist  Church,  and  maintains  high  stand- 
ards of  Christian  education.  It  is  in  reality 
and  actual  practice  a  non-sectarian  school, 
following  the  broad  standards  of  education 
that  make  for  the  good  of  society.  This  was 
the  first  college  for  women  south  of  the  Potomac 
and  Ohio  rivers  recognized  as  an  A-l  college 
by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 
It  ranks  with  Bryn  Mawr,  Vassar,  and  Smith 
in  the  high  standards  of  scholarship  required 
for  graduation.  Its  growth  in  number  of 
students  has  been  phenomenal.  Beginning 
in  1893  with  several  hundred  students,  it 
now  has  nearly  seven  hundred,  with  a  waiting 
list.  It  has  a  faculty  of  over  fifty  members, 
representing  advanced  scholarship  in  all  the 
fields  of  learning.  At  the  death  of  Dr.  Smith 
in  1911,  Dr.  William  A.  Webb  was  elected 
president  and  holds  that  position  at  present 
(1916). 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  FOR  WOMEN 

Sweetbriar  College.  —  Sweetbriar  College  was 
the  outgrowth  of  a  large  gift  for  the  purpose  of 
educating  girls  and  young  women  in  "  sound 
learning"  that  fits  them  to  be  useful  members 
of  society.  The  gifts  came  by  will  from  Mrs. 
Indiana  Fletcher  Williams,  who  died  in  1900, 
leaving  to  a  Board  of  four  men  a  large  estate 
of  eight  thousand  acres  of  land  in  Amherst 
County  and  one  half  a  million  dollars,  with 
the  stipulation  that  a  charter  should  be  pro- 
cured and  a  self-perpetuating  Board  appointed 
who  should  establish  and  maintain  on  the 
plantation  a  school  or  seminary  to  be  known 
as  the  "  Sweetbriar  Institute  "  for  the  educa- 
tion of  white  girls  and  young  women.  The 
will  stipulated  that, 

The  general  scope  of  the  school  is  to  impart  to  its 
students  such  an  education  in  sound  learning  and  such 
physical,  moral  and  religious  training  as  shall  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  directors  best  fit  them  to  be  useful  members  of 
society. 

The  college  was  chartered  in  1901  and  the 
Board  of  Trustees  formulated  a  policy  and 
elected  Miss  Mary  K.  Benedict,  a  graduate  of 

297 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Vassar  and  a  Ph.D.  of  Yale,  as  president.  The 
policy  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  is  distinctly 
stated  in  a  comprehensive  document  which  de- 
fines the  scope  of  the  work  the  institution 
should  attempt  to  cover.     It  stated: 

That  in  the  North  such  schools  as  Vassar,  Smith,  Bryn 
Mawr,  and  Wellesley  meet  the  demands  for  collegiate 
training  of  young  women,  that  in  the  West  and  South  the 
demands  for  the  equipment  of  women  in  the  practical 
vocations  are  met  by  the  establishment  of  normal  and  in- 
dustrial schools  exclusively  for  girls. 

They  proposed  that  it  should  be  the  policy 
to  combine  in  this  school  the  best  features  of 
these  two  types  of  institutions. 

According  to  this  policy  the  proposed  new 
institution  should  offer  to  young  women  of  the 
South  carefully  formulated  courses  leading  to 
degrees  of  high  grade  in  the  fields  of  literature 
and  science,  and  along  with  that,  thorough 
practical  training  in  certain  artistic  and  in- 
dustrial branches.  The  school  was  opened  for 
students  in  1904. 

Buildings  and  Equipment.  —  At  first  com- 
plete plans  for  the  college  plant  were  made. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  FOR  WOMEN 

They  consist  of  a  group  of  sixteen  buildings, 
connected  by  arcades  of  uniform  style  of 
architecture.  There  are  to  be  two  quadrangles, 
one  residential  and  the  other  academic.  Up  to 
this  time  one  academic  building  and  five  dormi- 
tories have  been  completed.  The  other  build- 
ings are  to  be  added  as  the  demand  requires. 
The  old  Williams  homestead  contains  parlors 
and  guest-rooms  and  offices  for  the  administra- 
tive force.  The  academic  building  is  fitted 
out  with  the  most  complete  equipment  for 
college  purposes,  —  laboratories,  library,  lec- 
ture rooms,  and  assembly  hall.  The  dormi- 
tories are  comfortably  and  attractively  fur- 
nished, with  every  modern  convenience. 

Ideals  and  Curricula.  —  Students  are  ad- 
mitted to  the  work  of  the  college  under  three 
heads:  (1)  regular  college  students,  offering 
fifteen  units  of  secondary  school  work;  (2) 
subfreshmen  students,  offering  six  units  of 
secondary  school  work;  (3)  special  students, 
offering  six  units,  but  such  students  can  elect 
courses  in  such  fields  as  art  and  music  which 
do  not  lead  to  credit  for  a  degree.     The  work 

299 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

leading  to  the  degree  of  A.B.1  is  sixty-one  hours, 
thirty-one  of  which  are  required  in  the  fields 
of  English,  Bible  literature,  ancient  languages, 
foreign  languages,  history  and  economics,  mathe- 
matics, and  sciences.  Sweetbriar  College  is  a 
highly  endowed  institution  and  controlled  by  a 
Board  composed  of  Episcopalians,  although  it 
is  a  distinctly  non-sectarian  school.  The  num- 
ber of  students  has  increased  rapidly  from  year 
to  year.  The  territory  represented  is  a  wide 
one,  and  the  students  come  from  all  denomi- 
national faiths.  It  has  a  faculty  of  thirty-two 
members  and  a  student  body  of  two  hundred 
and  eighty. 

West  Hampton  College.  —  West  Hampton 
College  is  a  newly  organized  institution  for 
the  higher  education  of  women  in  connection 
and  coordinate  with  Richmond  College  for 
men.  It  was  organized  at  the  time  the  latter 
was  removed  to  its  present  site  outside  the 
city  limits  of  Richmond  in  1914.  It  occupies 
a  part  of,  the  grounds  of  Richmond  College, 
but  has  separate  buildings,  faculty,  and  equip- 

1  The  A.B.  degree  is  the  only  one  offered  at  present. 
300 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  FOR  WOMEN 

ment.  This  college  for  women  has  been  or- 
ganized on  the  plan  of  Barnard  College  at 
Columbia  University  and  Sophia  Newcomb  at 
Tulane  University.  It  has  an  entrance  re- 
quirement of  fifteen  units  of  secondary  school 
work,  and  standard  college  curricula  for  gradua- 
tion. Its  charter  gives  it  authority  to  grant 
the  A.B.  and  the  A.M.  degrees.  Practically 
like  all  the  other  institutions  for  higher  learning 
for  women  in  the  state,  it  still  admits  students 
conditionally  who  have  not  completed  the  fifteen 
units  for  entrance,  but  this  policy  will  be 
abandoned  within  the  next  few  years.  West 
Hampton  College  is  designed  to  be  a  coordinate 
college  of  high  grade  for  the  education  of  women. 
Though  non-sectarian  in  its  practice,  it  is  con- 
trolled and  fostered  by  the  Baptist  denomination. 
Summary.  —  These  are  the  typical  schools 
thus  far  developed  for  the  higher  education  of 
women  in  Virginia,  according  to  the  highest 
academic  standards.  Two  were  pioneer  in- 
stitutions, with  a  long  history  of  struggle, 
without  endowment  or  favorable  public  opinion. 
The   others   were   established   within   the   last 

301 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

decade  or  more,  under  more  favorable  circum- 
stances, and  with  adequate  endowments.  A 
few  might  be  regarded  as  sectarian  schools, 
on  account  of  the  close  church  fosterage,  but 
all  of  them  are  growing  toward  the  ideal  of 
higher  education  for  the  general  good  of  society 
or  citizenship. 

Other  Schools  and  Colleges  for  Girls.  — 
There  are  in  Virginia  about  thirty  schools  and 
colleges  for  girls  doing  varying  degrees  of 
secondary  school  and  college  work,  nearly  all 
of  which  have  been  established  within  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century.1  Some  of  them  are  un- 
der church  control  and  fosterage,  and  others 
are  private  or   corporative   enterprises.     These 

1  The  more  important  of  these  are : 

Sullins  College  (Methodist),  Bristol;  Martha  Washington  College 
(Methodist),  Stonewall  Jackson  Institute  (Presbyterian),  Abingdon; 
Stuart  Hall  (Episcopal),  Staunton;  Blackstone  College  for  Girls 
(Methodist),  Blackstone;  Southern  Seminary,  Buena  Vista;  Southern 
College  (Methodist),  Petersburg;  Fort  Loudon  Seminary,  Winchester; 
Elizabeth  College  (Lutheran),  Salem;  Virginia  College,  Roanoke; 
St.  Anne's  School,  Charlottesville;  Chatham  Institute  (Episcopal), 
Chatham;  Woman's  College  (Baptist),  Richmond;  Virginia  Intermont 
College,  Bristol.  The  following  are  co-educational :  Virginia  Christian 
College  (Christian),  Lynchburg;  Bridgewater  College  (Church  of  the 
Brethren),  Bridgewater;  Shenandoah  Collegiate  Institute  (United 
Brethren),  Dayton ;  Eastern  College,  Manassas. 

302 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  FOR  WOMEN 

schools  have  been  doing  good  service  in  the 
field  of  secondary  education.  Some  of  them 
offer  college  curricula  and  have  granted  degrees 
in  the  past,  but,  during  the  last  decade,  while 
the  effort  to  standardize  all  kinds  of  education 
has  been  going  on,  many  of  these  schools  have 
abandoned  the  practice  of  granting  degrees. 
An  educational  conscience  has  been  growing 
among  the  heads  of  these  institutions  and  all 
are  now  encouraging  uniformly  high  standards 
for  entrance  to  college  work. 

The  state  Department  of  Education,  under 
the  stimulus  of  the  movement  to  standardize 
all  forms  of  education  in  this  country,  has  taken 
up  the  problem  of  evaluating  the  work  done  by 
these  various  institutions  and  in  general  these 
schools  have  been  classed  as  doing  either  second- 
ary school  work,  or,  where  some  satisfactory 
college  work  is  done,  such  schools  have  been 
classed  as  "  junior  colleges,"  a  term  recently 
determined  upon  to  designate  institutions  of 
this  character. 

In  1906  the  Virginia  Association  of  Colleges 
and  Schools  for  Girls  was  formed.     This  organi- 

303 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

zation  has  accomplished  some  effective  results 
in  the  way  of  bringing  about  uniform  standards 
of  instruction  among  these  institutions  of  learn- 
ing. 

Efforts  to  Establish  a  Coordinate  College  for 
Women  at  the  University  of  Virginia.  —  During 
the  last  three  sessions  of  the  Legislature  a  bill 
has  been  introduced  providing  for  the  estab- 
lishing by  the  state  of  a  college  for  women  in 
connection  with  the  University  of  Virginia. 
Each  time  the  bill  has  gained  in  number  of 
supporters.  During  the  session  of  1914  it 
lacked  only  a  few  votes  of  passing.  The  idea 
is  approved  by  the  Board  of  Visitors  of  the 
University  and  its  passage  is  urged  by  President 
Alderman.  Each  time  it  has  been  up  for  pas- 
sage, however,  there  has  been  strong  opposition 
to  it  from  the  older  alumni  and  some  members 
of  the  faculty  of  the  university.  A  vigorous 
campaign  for  its  passage  has  been  led  by  Mrs. 
B.  B.  Munford  of  Richmond. 


304 


CHAPTER  XVI 

EDUCATIONAL   RENAISSANCE   IN   VIRGINIA 

The  years  making  up  the  close  of  the  nine- 
teenth and  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury saw  a  new  awakening  throughout  the 
whole  South.  The  people  of  this  section  were 
forgetting  the  struggles  of  the  past,  and  before 
them  they  saw  a  new  vision  of  the  future  and 
felt  the  return  of  the  old-time  consciousness 
of  power.  A  new  generation  was  coming  on. 
Certain  leaders  in  the  old  were  giving  their  full 
energies  to  the  rebuilding  of  the  South  out  of 
the  more  permanent  and  abiding  ideals  that 
remained  from  the  wreck  of  war  and  from  the 
industrial,  civil,  and  social  disorganization.  The 
new  South  was  finding  itself,  and  the  rejuvenat- 
ing current  of  energy  and  power  was  ready  to 
be  directed  into  channels  for  the  upbuilding  of 
her  institutions  and  the  development  of  her  vast 
agricultural  and  industrial  resources.  It  was  a 
x  305 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

time  when  the  states  south  of  the  Potomac  and 
the  Ohio  were  "  taking  stock  "  of  their  possi- 
bilities, with  a  view  of  entering  upon  a  new  and 
larger  era  of  economic  and  social  progress.  In 
determining  upon  the  essential  features  in  this 
new  development,  they  settled  upon  popular 
education  as  one  of  the  first  and  most  funda- 
mental factors  that  would  insure  stability  and 
sanity  to  the  future  progress  of  her  institutions. 
The  states  of  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  and 
Tennessee  led  in  introducing  into  their  political 
campaigns  the  question  of  a  more  efficient  sys- 
tem of  public  education  for  all  the  children  of 
those  states.  The  governors  who  were  elected 
at  this  time  gained  national  reputation  as 
"  educational  governors."  Governors  Ay  cock 
of  North  Carolina  and  Montague  of  Virginia  are 
remembered  to-day  for  the  definite  service  they 
rendered  to  popular  education  in  their  respective 
states. 

Educational  Conference  at  Capon  Springs, 
West  Virginia.  —  This  conference  had  its  origin 
in  an  idea  of  the  Rev.  Edward  Abbott,  Rector 
of  St.  James  Parish,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts. 

306 


EDUCATIONAL  RENAISSANCE 

He  associated  with  him  Bishop  Dudley  of  Ken- 
tucky, Dr.  H.  B.  Frizzell  of  Hampton,  Rev.  A. 
B.  Hunter  of  Raleigh,  North  Carolina,  and 
Dr.  Dreher,  president  of  Roanoke  College,  and 
others,  who  prepared  a  programme  and  sent 
out  invitations  to  the  leading  educators  in  the 
southern  states.  The  first  conference  was  held 
June  29  to  July  3,  1898.  This  conference  heard 
discussions  relating  to  problems  of  providing 
more  adequate  educational  facilities  for  the 
negro  of  the  South  and  the  white  population  in 
the  Appalachian  Mountain  region,  whose  edu- 
cation up  to  this  time  had  been  largely  under 
the  auspices  of  church  and  charitable  organiza- 
tions of  the  North.  An  increased  interest  was 
manifested  each  year  as  the  conference  was  held, 
—  the  first  three  years  at  Capon  Springs  and 
then  at  different  places  in  the  South.  At  first 
the  missionary  idea  prevailed.  Of  the  thirty- 
four  members  of  this  conference,  twenty-one 
were  ministers.  From  year  to  year  discussions 
centred  upon  various  aspects  of  education  in 
the  South,  such  as  industrial  training  for  the 
negro  and  more  adequate  systems  for  popular 

307 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

education  in  the  southern  states.  Dr.  C.  W. 
Dabney,  president  of  the  University  of  Ten- 
nessee, in  an  address  before  the  conference, 
sounded  the  note  for  a  more  effective  system  of 
public  education  among  the  people  of  the  south- 
ern states.  In  1901  the  conference  was  held 
at  Winston-Salem,  North  Carolina.  Here  the 
Southern  Education  Board  was  organized  and 
field  agents  were  sent  out  to  carry  on  a  propa- 
ganda of  education  to  every  part  of  the  South  ; 
the  main  idea  being  that  "southern  education'' 
was  a  national  problem.  Funds  for  this  cam- 
paign were  contributed  by  men  of  wealth  and 
philanthropic  inclination  in  the  North.  Dr. 
Edwin  A.  Alderman,  in  one  of  his  characteristic 
utterances,  said  at  one  of  these  conferences : 

If  I  had  a  boy  and  wanted  to  teach  him  good,  straight 
honest,  vital  patriotism,  I  would  not  much  care  to  carry 
him  to  a  battle-field  where  men  had  shed  blood  and  torn 
at  each  other's  throats,  but  I  would  rather  wish  to  bring 
him  to  such  a  place  as  this,  where  he  might  see  the  play 
of  human  sympathy  at  its  best,  where  he  might  see  men 
and  women  of  strength  and  power,  unafraid  of  changing 
their  views,  unashamed  of  honest  emotion,  informed  with 
iron  purpose  and  touched  as  I  have  never  before  seen  a 
body  of  citizens  with  the  moral  and  political  values  of 

308 


EDUCATIONAL  RENAISSANCE 

childhood,  and  with  meaning  to  the  Nation  of  the  dim 
toiling  thousands  who  dwell  untaught  in  the  shadows  of 
the  world.1 

This  programme  of  propaganda  for  popular 
education  was  the  motive  power  that  touched 
the  social  conscience  in  every  rural  community 
in  Virginia  and  over  the  entire  South,  and  re- 
sulted in  an  era  of  wonderful  achievement  for 
popular  education.  It  was  a  period  of  liberal- 
izing and  unifying  of  forces.  The  following  reso- 
lution was  the  basis  of  the  policy  for  the  propa- 
ganda : 

Resolved,  That  this  conference  proceed  to  organize 
by  the  appointment  of  an  executive  board  of  seven  men, 
who  shall  be  fully  authorized  and  empowered  to  conduct, 
(1)  a  campaign  of  education  for  free  schools  for  all  the 
people  by  supplying  literature  to  the  newspaper  and 
periodical  press,  by  participating  in  educational  meetings, 
and  by  general  conferences,  (2)  to  conduct  a  Bureau  of 
Information  and  Advice  on  legislation  and  school  organ- 
ization.2 

1  Address  at  the  Athens,  Georgia,  Conference,  1902. 

2  Proceedings  of  the  Winston-Salem  Conference,  1901.  The  Execu- 
tive Board  referred  to  above  was  composed  of  C.  W.  Dabney  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tennessee,  Edwin  A.  Alderman,  then  of  Tulane  University, 
Dr.  Chas.  Mclver,  Greensboro,  N.C.,  Hon.  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  Agent 
Peabody  Fund,  Dr.  H.  B.  Frissell  of  Hampton,  Geo.  Foster,  Peabody, 
N.Y.,  and  Wallace  Buttrick,  Albany,  N.Y. 

309 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Under  the  lead  of  these  men,  together  with 
Dr.  Ormond  Stone  of  the  University  of  Virginia, 
Dr.  S.  C.  Mitchell  of  Richmond  College,  and 
others,  the  people  of  the  state  were  aroused  to 
a  realization  of  the  importance  of  further  educa- 
tional advance  in  Virginia. 

Provisions  of  the  New  Constitution.  —  In  the 
year  1902,  a  new  constitution  was  made  for  the 
state  of  Virginia.  Its  main  educational  pro- 
visions are :  (1)  the  state  Board  shall  consist 
of  the  governor,  attorney-general,  and  the  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction.  In  addi- 
tion to  these,  there  shall  be  three  experienced 
educators  elected  by  the  Senate  out  of  the  nomi- 
nations made  by  the  faculties  of  the  following 
institutions :  the  University  of  Virginia,  Virginia 
Military  Institute,  the  State  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute, the  State  Normal  School  at  Farmville, 
the  School  for  the  Deaf  and  Blind,  and  William 
and  Mary  College,  as  long  as  the  latter  is  sub- 
sidized by  the  state.  (2)  There  shall  be  two 
division  superintendents,  one  from  the  county 
and  one  from  the  city,  elected  in  addition  to 
those  mentioned  above,  but  they  shall  not  have 

310 


EDUCATIONAL  RENAISSANCE 

the  power  of  voting  in  the  election  of  any  school 
official.  (3)  The  state  superintendent  shall  be 
an  experienced  educator  and  elected  by  the 
people  for  a  term  of  four  years.  (4)  The  state 
Board  of  Education  shall  be  authorized:  (a)  to 
divide  the  state  into  school  divisions,  each  not 
less  than  one  county  or  city,  and  appoint  a  super- 
intendent for  each  division  for  a  term  of  four 
years,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Senate; 
(6)  to  have  full  charge  of  the  investment,  care, 
and  distribution  of  the  state  school  funds,  as 
regulated  by  law;  (c)  to  make  all  needful  rules 
for  the  management  and  conduct  of  the  schools. 
These  rules  shall  have  the  force  of  law;1  (d)  to 
appoint  a  Board  of  Directors  for  the  management 
of  the  state  library,  and  appoint  a  salaried 
librarian.  (5)  Each  magisterial  district  shall 
constitute  a  separate  school  district,  with  three 
trustees  selected  according  to  law.  (6)  The  state 
Board  shall  appropriate  all  school  funds  on  the 
basis  of  school  population,  including  all  persons 
between  the  ages  of  seven  and  twenty.  (7)  The 
annual  property  tax  for  state  school  funds  shall 

1  Subject,  of  course,  to  amendment  and  repeal  by  the  Legislature. 

311 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

not  be  less  than  one,  nor  more  than  five,  mills 
on  the  dollar.  (8)  Each  county,  city,  town,  and 
school  district  may  levy  a  tax  of  not  over  five 
mills  on  the  dollar,  to  be  appropriated  by  the 
local  school  authorities.  (9)  The  General  As- 
sembly may  establish  agricultural,  normal,  mili- 
tary, and  technical  schools  of  such  grade  as  shall 
be  for  the  public  good.  (10)  The  General  As- 
sembly may  establish  compulsory  education  for 
children  between  the  ages  of  twelve  and  eighteen. 
(11)  The  children  of  poor  parents  are  supplied 
with  text-books.  (12)  White  and  colored  chil- 
dren shall  be  educated  in  separate  schools. 
(13)  No  public  school  funds  can  be  applied  to 
any  school  not  under  exclusive  control  of  the 
state.1 

This  is  the  broad  outfit  of  constitutional  and 
legislative  provision  that  resulted  from  the  new 
awakening  among  the  people  of  Virginia  and 
made  possible  the  realization  of  so  many  con- 
structive educational  reforms  in  the  state  dur- 
ing the  more  recent  years. 

Cooperative     Education    Association.  —  The 

1  Exception  was  made  in  the  case  of  William  and  Mary  College. 
312 


EDUCATIONAL  RENAISSANCE 

germ  of  the  Cooperative  Education  Association 
in  Virginia  was  an  all-day  meeting  held  in  a  room 
in  Murphy's  Hotel  in  1903,  where  five  men  met 
for  the  purpose  of  discussing  how  something 
real  could  be  done  to  carry  into  concrete  form 
some  of  the  logical  conclusions  reached  by  the 
agitation  resulting  from  the  Capon  Springs 
Conference  and  the  organization  and  work  of 
the  Southern  Education  Board.  These  men 
were  Governor  Montague,  Dr.  H.  B.  Frissell  of 
Hampton,  Dr.  S.  C.  Mitchell  of  Richmond  Col- 
lege, Dr.  Robert  Frazer  of  Warrenton,  and  J.  D. 
Eggleston,  later  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction.  It  was  decided  here  to  perfect  an 
organization  for  the  state  that  would  carry 
forward  some  definite  plan,  by  which  the  people 
of  Virginia  would  realize  the  necessity  for  more 
democracy  in  education.  This  was  to  be  done 
through  cooperation.  Ways  and  means  were 
to  be  devised  whereby  all  the  creative  educa- 
tional forces  of  the  state  could  be  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  single  gigantic  problem  of  pro- 
viding education  that  would  vitalize  the  life 
of  the  state.     The  forces   started   some  time 

313 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

before  had  been  "  stung  into  paralysis."  It 
was  now  time  for  action. 

In  the  spring  of  1904,  the  Association  was  or- 
ganized with  Governor  Montague  as  temporary 
chairman,  and  Dr.  S.  C.  Mitchell  was  elected 
permanent  chairman.  The  idea  was  to  cooper- 
ate with  the  Southern  Education  Board  in  its 
educational  propaganda  for  "  agitation."  It 
held  its  meetings  semiannually  and  formulated 
the  following  platform :  (1)  nine  months' 
schooling  for  every  child,  (2)  high  schools  within 
reasonable  distance  of  every  child,  (3)  well- 
trained  teachers,  (4)  agricultural  and  industrial 
training,  (5)  efficient  supervision,  (6)  promo- 
tion of  libraries,  (7)  schools  for  the  defective 
and  dependent,  (8)  citizens'  educational  asso- 
ciations in  every  county  and  city. 

In  December,  1904,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Co- 
operative Education  Association,  in  Norfolk, 
Dr.  Ormond  Stone  of  the  University  of  Virginia 
offered  a  resolution  to  the  effect  that  Governor 
Montague  and  President  Alderman  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia  make  a  tour  of  the  state  in 
May,  1905,  in  the  interest  of  better  education. 

314 


EDUCATIONAL  RENAISSANCE 

This  was  the  start  of  the  remarkable  "  May 
campaign." 

Never  was  a  state  so  bombarded  in  the  interest 
of  any  cause.  Men  spoke  in  the  remotest  com- 
munities. Candidates  of  both  political  parties 
and  for  all  offices  turned  aside  from  national 
questions  to  the  earnest  advocacy  of  an  ade- 
quate school  system  for  the  state.  Preachers 
found  a  fresh  application  of  the  principles  of 
religion.  Editors  gave  their  editorial  and  news 
columns  for  the  dissemination  of  knowledge 
and  the  inspiration  of  the  people.  College 
presidents  and  professors  in  state  and  private 
institutions  found  new  fields  for  useful  labor. 
On  the  political  hustings,  in  places  where  camp 
meetings  were  wont  to  take  place,  at  cross-roads' 
stores,  and '  old  field '  schoolhouses,  meetings  were 
held  in  the  interest  of  public  education.  Dr. 
Bruce  R.  Payne,  then  of  William  and  Mary 
College,  kept  the  papers  filled  with  educational 
literature.  During  the  so-called  "  May  cam- 
paign "  one  hundred  of  the  ablest  speakers  of  the 
state,  including  the  governor,  delivered  three 
hundred  addresses   in   ninety-four  counties  at 

315 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

one  hundred  different  meetings.  Two  hundred 
thousand  pages  of  educational  literature  were 
issued,  and  fifty  citizen  school  associations 
were  organized.  All  this  was  done  in  thirty 
days. 

During  this  campaign  the  facts  regarding 
educational  conditions  in  Virginia  were  set 
forth  and  compared  with  northern  and  western 
states.  In  the  comparison  the  facts  showed  a 
woful  lack  of  progress  in  Virginia,  in  many  re- 
spects, and  in  some  points  they  showed  that 
Virginia  was  far  behind  the  other  states,  viz., 
(1)  in  local  school  revenues,  (2)  enrolment  of 
pupils,  (3)  in  per  capita  expenditure,  (4)  in  agen- 
cies for  the  training  of  teachers,  (5)  in  the  num- 
ber and  efficiency  of  her  high  schools,  and  (6)  in 
provision  for  industrial  training. 

In  1902  the  General  Education  Board  was 
organized  in  the  city  of  New  York,  with  Dr. 
Wallace  Buttrick  as  general  secretary  and 
field  agent.  Some  men  of  wealth,  particularly 
John  D.  Rockefeller,  gave  large  sums  of  money 
to  be  distributed  throughout  the  South  to  stim- 
ulate public  education.     At  first  Mr.  Rocke- 

316 


EDUCATIONAL  RENAISSANCE 

feller  pledged  $100,000  annually  for  ten  years  for 
this  purpose.  During  the  years  1902  and  1903 
Dr.  Buttrick  procured  the  services  of  Hon. 
Harry  St.  George  Tucker  of  Lexington,  Vir- 
ginia, and  Dr.  Robert  Fraser  of  Orange  County, 
Virginia,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  a 
campaign  of  agitation  in  the  state  of  Vir- 
ginia for  better  educational  facilities.  They 
travelled  into  every  part  of  the  state,  speaking 
at  educational  meetings,  and  holding  confer- 
ences with  educational  leaders.  All  this  initial 
work  led  to  the  development  of  organized 
methods  of  procedure  in  the  form  of  the  Cooper- 
ative Education  Association  in  Virginia. 

This  organization  continued  its  work  of  co- 
operating with  the  state  department  of  educa- 
tion in  carrying  out  the  various  constructive 
plans  for  education  and  has  become  a  permanent 
and  positive  force  in  the  many  phases  of  school 
improvement  throughout  the  state.  Within 
a  period  of  five  years  after  its  organization  it 
was  the  means  of  raising  $750,000  in  addition 
to  the  state  and  local  funds  for  physical  im- 
provements in  connection  with  the  rural  schools, 

317 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

such  as  fencing  the  grounds,  establishing  libra- 
ries, adding  to  the  school  equipment,  putting 
down  concrete  walks,  installing  public  drinking 
fountains,  and  instituting  "  clean-up  days  "  and 
public  meetings. 

Large  credit  is  due  for  all  this  constructive 
work  to  Mr.  J.  H.  Binford,  the  executive  secre- 
tary of  the  association,  to  Mrs.  B.  B.  Munford, 
president  of  the  association,  and  to  Mrs.  L.  H. 
Dashield,  whose  specific  work  was  the  organi- 
zation of  Patrons'  Leagues.  There  are  at  present 
870  leagues  in  the  state  with  a  membership  of 
over  28,000.  About  $48,000  annually  are  raised 
for  the  improvement  of  the  schools  through  the 
activities  of  this  association.  The  organiza- 
tion is  a  sort  of  "  chamber  of  commerce "  for 
the  rural  community. 

Summary.  —  In  July,  1898,  at  Capon  Springs, 
was  held  a  meeting  of  men  from  the  North  and 
the  South  to  discuss  Christian  education,  cen- 
tring around  the  church  schools  for  the  negro 
race  and  the  white  people  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountain  region.  In  a  few  years  this  developed 
into  wider  significance  and  spread  to  a  more 

318 


EDUCATIONAL  RENAISSANCE 

general  interest  in  public  education,  maintained 
and  controlled  by  state  systems.  This  widen- 
ing interest  was  largely  due  to  the  addresses  of 
Hon.  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  agent  for  the  Peabody  and 
Slater  funds.  This  conference  in  1901  devel- 
oped into  the  Southern  Education  Board,  the 
majority  of  whose  members  were  southern 
educators,  and  carried  on  the  initial  work  of 
organizing  the  propaganda  of  agitation  for  bet- 
ter schools.  About  this  time  the  General  Educa- 
tion Board  came  into  existence,  controlling  large 
funds  for  philanthropic  purposes.  This  Board 
came  to  the  rescue  of  the  Southern  Education 
Board  and  materially  assisted  in  the  plan  and 
work  of  the  latter.  The  combined  forces  of 
these  two  boards  wrought  the  great  work  of  re- 
viving the  educational  interests  of  the  whole 
South. 

The  Virginia  Cooperative  Association  was  the 
machinery  within  the  state  to  carry  out  the  de- 
tailed programme  for  better  educational  facilities 
for  the  children  of  Virginia.  All  this  prepared 
the  way  for  the  provisions  for  education  in  the 
new  state  constitution.     Thus  the  people  of  the 

319 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

state  were  prepared  for  the  constructive  work 
of  the  administration  of  Jos.  D.  Eggleston  as 
state  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
whose  election  occurred  in  1906.  We  shall  next 
follow  the  remarkable  achievements  of  his  ad- 
ministration. 


320 


CHAPTER  XVII 

MODERN  PERIOD  OF  EDUCATIONAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

Administration  of  Joseph  D.  Eggleston. — Mr. 
Eggleston  was  the  first  state  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  elected  by  the  people 
according  to  the  provisions  of  the  new  constitu- 
tion of  1902.  He  had  been  vitally  connected 
with  the  movement  for  "  agitation  "  during  the 
previous  years,  during  which  time  he  had  urged 
other  men  to  become  candidates  for  the  office 
of  state  superintendent.  He  called  the  atten- 
tion of  these  men  to  the  opportunity  for  service 
to  the  state  afforded  by  the  office,  but  when  he 
could  induce  no  one  else  to  run,  he  became  the 
candidate  himself  and  was  elected.  His  ad- 
ministration of  nearly  eight  years  stands  out  as 
an  era  of  educational  progress  remarkable,  if 
not  phenomenal,  in  the  line  of  democratizing 
education  in  Virginia.  There  are  two  main 
T  321 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

outstanding  features  that  characterize  the  lines 
of  accomplishment  during  his  administration: 
(1)  the  coalescing  of  all  the  various  educational 
forces  in  the  state  into  one  supreme  directive 
force  toward  the  goal  of  popular  education, 
and  (2)  the  organizing  and  development  of  a 
system  of  extension  work  that  carried  a  new  type 
of  practical  teaching  to  the  boys  and  girls  in 
every  part  of  Virginia.  The  secondary  lines 
of  progress  that  led  to  these  two  large  achieve- 
ments were:  (1)  the  creation  of  a  strong,  aggres- 
sive department  of  public  instruction;  (2)  the 
development  of  an  adequate  public  high  school 
system;  (3)  a  constructive  attempt  to  place 
the  education  of  the  negro  upon  a  satisfactory 
basis;  (4)  a  richer,  socialized  curriculum  for 
the  rural  schools;  (5)  better  sanitary  and 
hygienic  conditions  in  connection  with  the  rural 
school  and  the  rural  home. 

State  Board  of  Examiners.  —  In  1905,  the 
year  before  Mr.  Eggleston's  election,  the  state 
Board,  in  carrying  out  the  intent  of  the  new 
constitution,  laid  off  the  state  into  five  grand 
divisions,  each  including  about  fifteen  counties, 


EDUCATIONAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

and  appointed  an  inspector  for  each.  The 
duties  of  these  so-called  examiners  were  very  in- 
definitely understood  at  first,  but  they  soon  be- 
gan to  organize  a  system  of  supervision  among 
the  schools  and  inaugurated  constructive  plans 
that  led  to  the  establishment  of  high  schools. 
They  also  took  full  charge  of  certificating 
teachers.  Under  the  wise  direction  of  Mr. 
Eggleston  these  men  became  the  educational 
dynamos  in  their  respective  sections  of  the  state. 
They  trained  the  teachers  in  a  system  of  sum- 
mer schools,  built  schoolhouses,  consolidated 
schools,  established  routes  for  school  wagons, 
created  public  sentiment  for  better  schools,  held 
public  meetings  of  patrons  in  every  community, 
cooperated  with  district  and  county  officials 
in  securing  funds  for  school  buildings  and  in- 
creasing the]  pay  of  teachers.  All  this  had  a 
wholesome  effect  upon  the  schools  and  increased 
the  effectiveness  of  public  education  in  the 
state.  In  1910  the  office  of  Examiner  was 
abolished  by  the  state  Board  of  Education  and 
some  of  these  same  men  were  retained  as  "  in- 
spectors "  or  "  supervisors  "   of  schools  under 

323 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

the   department  of  education,   with   offices   in 
Richmond. 

Constructive  Legislation.1  —  Mr.  Eggleston, 
by  a  rare  combination  of  tact  and  leadership, 
held  his  own  with  the  most  astute  political 
leaders  of  the  state,  and  thus  saw  many  of  his 
ideas  and  those  of  his  co-workers  take  the 
form  of  law.  By  a  hard  fight  and  a  close  vote 
the  Mann  High  School  bill  was  passed  in  1906, 
which  provided  for  an  appropriation  of  $50,000 
to  be  given  on  condition  that  local  communities 
would  furnish  proper  buildings  and  similar 
amounts  for  the  increase  of  teachers  and  salaries. 
This  appropriation  has  since  been  increased  to 
$100,000.  The  Williams  Loan  Fund  bill  was 
passed  in  1908.  This  provided  for  the  lending 
of  the  Literary  Fund  of  the  state  to  the  dis- 
trict boards  at  the  rate  of  four  per  cent,  to  be  re- 
paid in  ten  annual  instalments,  the  loans  to 
be  made  upon  buildings  whose  plans  were  ap- 
proved by  the  department  of  public  instruction. 
Later,  this  provision  was  extended  to  all  build- 
ings erected  in  the   state  for  school  purposes. 

1  See  Acts  of  1906  and  1908. 
324 


EDUCATIONAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

By  this  means  the  state  department  secured 
control  of  the  lighting,  heating,  and  ventilation 
of  the  school  buildings  over  the  entire  state. 

The  Strode  bill  of  1908  lumped  a  series  of 
advanced  ideas  into  a  compact  act  which  was 
passed  with  one  legislative  stroke.  One  of  the 
important  parts  of  this  bill  was  the  provision 
by  which  the  division  superintendents'  salary 
could  be  increased  by  the  counties  to  such  an 
extent  that  they  might  secure  expert  men  who 
would  give  all  their  time  to  the  work  of  ad- 
ministration and  supervision.  This  led  to  the 
policy  of  the  state  Board  to  go  outside  of  the 
division,  if  necessary,  to  find  a  suitable  person 
for  this  office.  The  attempt  to  carry  out  this 
policy  created  a  storm  of  opposition  throughout 
the  state.  Because  of  this  adverse  public 
opinion,  only  a  few  men  whose  residences  were 
outside  of  the  division  were  appointed  to  this 
office.  Another  important  provision  of  this 
bill  related  to  the  subsidy  fund  of  $25,000 
for  the  encouragement  of  elementary  graded 
schools.  These  took  the  place  of  one-room 
and  one-teacher  schools  in  the  country  districts. 

325 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Another  part  of  this  bill  created  an  educational 
commission  which  was  composed  of  a  group  of 
leading  educators  of  the  state,  whose  duty  it 
was  to  make  a  critical  study  of  educational  con- 
ditions and  methods  of  taxation,  and  report 
to  the  Legislature  suggestions  as  to  the  best 
methods  of  preventing  duplication  and  waste 
in  the  state  system  of  secondary  and  higher 
education.  However  wise  these  suggestions, 
they  were  never  acted  upon  by  the  Legislature. 
The  provisions  of  this  bill,  while  leading  to 
central  executive  control,  at  the  same  time  en- 
couraged local  initiative.  The  funds  thus  pro- 
vided for  by  the  state  have  called  forth  twice 
and  even  three  times  the  amount,  as  a  result 
of  local  agitation  and  action.  Some  of  it  was 
in  the  form  of  taxation  and  some  of  voluntary 
subscriptions.  The  entire  fund  for  school  pur- 
poses increased  from  $2,500,000  in  1905  to 
$5,000,000  in  1911.  There  has  been  a  corre- 
sponding increase  in  the  number  of  teachers,  in 
the  enrolment  and  attendance  of  pupils.  The 
average  number  of  months  taught  was  increased 
from  6.4  in  1905  to  7.04  in  1910. 

326 


EDUCATIONAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

Another  important  part  of  this  "  Omnibus  bill " 
provided  that  every  schoolroom  hereafter  built 
should  contain  fifteen  square  feet  of  floor  space 
and  two  hundred  cubic  feet  of  pure  air  a 
minute  for  each  pupil;  there  should  be  facil- 
ities for  exhausting  the  foul  air ;  ceilings  should 
be  twelve  feet  high;  all  exit  doors  should 
open  outward ;  light  should  come  from  the 
left  and  rear,  and  this  required  light  space 
should  be  equal  to  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the 
floor  space ;  there  should  be  at  least  two  suitable 
closets  or  outhouses.  The  Board  of  Trustees 
should  see  that  these  closets  were  kept  clean 
and  in  order. 

Still  another  part  of  the  bill  provided  for  the 
establishment  of  one  or  more  normal  training 
schools.  These  should  be  located  by  the  state 
Board  of  Education  in  connection  with  high 
schools  already  established.  There  should  not 
be  more  than  one  for  every  county  or  incor- 
porated town,  provided  there  was  not  a  state 
normal  school  already  located  in  the  town. 
A  few  of  these  were  established  at  first  in 
various  parts  of  the  state. 

327 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

This  bill  also  contained  an  act  providing  for 
the  testing  of  sight  and  hearing  of  children. 
The  mere  pittance  of  three  hundred  dollars 
was  appropriated  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of 
the  act.  It  provided  for  the  printing  of  blanks 
on  which  the  parent  is  notified  of  any  defect 
in  his  children.  This  act,  too,  has  not  led  to 
any  effective  results. 

By  act  of  the  Legislature  in  1908,  agricultural 
high  schools  were  established,  one  for  every 
congressional  district.  Eleven  schools  of  this 
type  have  been  established.  An  annual  ap- 
propriation was  made  for  these  schools.  The 
idea  was  to  establish  curricula  in  agriculture 
and  home  economics  in  some  of  the  high  schools 
already  established.  The  Legislature  of  1908 
gave  $20,000  to  these  schools.  In  1910  this 
amount  was  increased  to  $30,000,  and  the  next 
year  an  additional  sum  of  $25,000  was  appro- 
priated for  permanent  improvements  at  these 
schools.1 


agricultural  high  schools  are  located  as  follows :  1st  congres- 
sional district,  Hampton ;  2d  congressional  district  at  Driver ;  3d  con- 
gressional district,  Chester ;  4th  congressional  district,  Burkeville ;  5th 
congressional  district,  Elk  Creek ;  6th  congressional  district,  New  London ; 


EDUCATIONAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

These  schools  retain  the  usual  curricula  in 
the  various  secondary  school  subjects,  but,  in 
addition,  they  conduct  courses  in  various  phases 
of  agriculture  and  domestic  economy.  These 
schools  are  not  strictly  agricultural,  for  they 
continue  to  offer  the  courses  leading  to  college 
entrance. 

Growth  of  High  Schools.  —  In  1906  there 
were  about  seventy-five  so-called  high  schools 
in  the  state.  Only  ten  of  these  were  free  and 
gave  a  four-year  course.  Under  the  stimulus 
of  the  incentive  fund  given  by  the  state  and  the 
work  of  the  state  examiners,  the  number  of 
high  schools  in  the  state  increased  rapidly,  for 
several  years  at  the  rate  of  nearly  one  hundred 
a  year.  In  1905  there  were  50  high  schools  in 
the  State,  but  in  1910  there  were  360.  At 
present  (1916)  there  are  over  four  hundred. 
These  schools  were  standardized  from  year  to 
year,  and  continued  encouragement  was  offered, 
so  that  there  were,  in  1910,  143  high  schools 


7th  congressional  district,  Middletown;  8th  congressional  district, 
Manassas;  9th  congressional  district,  Lebanon;  10th  congressional 
district,  Appomattox. 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

giving  a  two-year  course ;  81  giving  a  three-year 
course,  and  83  giving  a  four-year  course.  These 
are  ranked  respectively  as  first  grade,  second 
grade,  and  third  grade  high  schools.  The  lower 
grade  schools  are  always  striving  to  reach  the 
standard  of  the  higher  grade  schools.  A  few 
high  schools  at  present  charge  a  tuition  fee, 
but  soon  they  will  all  be  free,  since  local  taxation 
for  school  purposes  is  becoming  more  and  more 
popular  among  the  people.  The  movement  for 
establishing  rural  high  schools  has  had  more  to 
do  with  increasing  local  taxation  for  school 
purposes  than  any  other  single  cause.  The 
following  table  shows  the  growth  in  high 
school  activities  from  1906  to  1910. x 


Number 
of  High 
Schools 

Enrol- 
ment 

Teachers 

Value  of 

School 

Property 

Monet  Expended 

Local 

State 

1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 

75 

218 
229 
245 
388 

3,405 

9,196 

9,992 

13,418 

15,323 

146 

248 
261 
680 
837 

$462,845 
2,573,619 

$102,480 
155,568 
191,390 
257,887 
320,403 

50,000 

50,000 

126,000 

133,000 

1  See  Five  Years  of  High  School  Progress  in  Virginia,  by  Bruce  R. 
Payne. 

330 


EDUCATIONAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

This  table  shows  an  interesting  fact  regarding 
the  influence  that  the  state  high  school  fund 
had  upon  local  taxation.  While  dollar  for 
dollar  is  required  by  the  state,  each  year  shows 
that  over  three  dollars  of  local  support  were 
given  for  each  dollar  of  the  state  appropriation. 
So  rapid  has  been  the  annual  growth  of  high 
schools  that  the  increase  in  five  years  has  been 
nearly  half  a  million  dollars.1 

This  same  legislature  of  1908  passed  an  act 
establishing  a  teachers'  retirement  fund.  An 
appropriation  of  $5000  was  made  out  of  the 
state  treasury  for  the  purpose  and  a  provision 
was  made  by  which  one  per  cent  of  the  teachers' 
salaries  could  be  retained  and  applied  to  this 
fund.  The  regulations  governing  the  distribu- 
tion of  this  fund  were  placed  under  the  control 
of  the  state  Board  of  Education.  At  first 
teachers  who  had  taught  for  twenty -five  years 
or  for  twenty  years,  if  mental  or  physical  in- 
firmity  or   age   had   rendered   them    inefficient 

1  See  report  of  Dr.  Henry  Pritchett,  Carnegie  Foundation,  1911,  in 
which  he  says :  "  Probably  no  educational  development  in  any  state  of 
the  Union  is  more  remarkable  than  that  which  is  represented  in  the  old 
commonwealth  of  Virginia." 

331 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

for  service,  received  an  annual  pension  equal  to 
half  the  salary  at  the  time  of  retirement,  pro- 
vided no  teacher  received  more  than  four 
hundred  dollars  annually.  In  1910  the  act 
was  amended,  and  now  pensions  are  given  to 
men  who  have  taught  for  thirty  years  and  have 
reached  the  age  of  fifty-eight  and  to  women 
who  have  taught  for  thirty  years  and  have 
reached  the  age  of  fifty.  If  the  pension  is  sought 
because  of  mental  or  physical  disability  the  appli- 
cant may  have  taught  only  twenty  years,  but, 
in  this  event,  the  application  must  be  approved 
both  by  the  state  Board  of  Education  and  by  the 
state  Board  of  Health.  The  pensions  are  paid 
quarterly  by  the  second  auditor.  In  1910 
there  were  271  teachers  in  the  state  receiv- 
ing pensions  under  this  act,  239  white  and  32 
colored.  The  income  from  the  one  per  cent 
deduction  of  the  teachers'  salaries  amounts  to 
about  $40,000,  and,  together  with  the  annuity 
appropriated  by  the  state,  the  total  receipts 
are  $45,000.  The  law  provides  that  in  case 
the  funds  are  not  sufficient  for  the  eligible 
pensioners,    the    amount     available     shall    be 

332 


EDUCATIONAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

prorated.  This  bill,  while  falling  short  of 
meeting  the  needs  in  the  state,  is  a  beginning 
in  this  line  and  commits  the  state  govern- 
ment to  the  maintenance  and  support  of  such 
a  cause. 

Normal  Schools.  —  While  the  leaders  in  edu- 
cation throughout  the  state  were  arriving  at 
conclusions  regarding  the  improvement  of 
schools,  they  could  not  escape  the  ultimate 
problem  of  devising  means  for  the  improvement 
of  the  teaching  force.  They  were  not  long  in 
determining  that  the  best  and  most  direct  way 
of  advancing  the  quality  of  teaching  in  these 
newly  vitalized  schools  was  to  train  teachers 
for  this  work.  They  ascertained  that  1500 
new  teachers  entered  the  service  each  year 
and  that  the  state  normal  school  at  Farmville 
at  best  was  turning  out  only  several  hundred 
teachers  annually.  So  the  arguments  for  this 
urgent  need  were  not  difficult  to  understand, 
and  the  Legislature  of  1908  established  two 
state  normal  schools,  one  at  Harrisonburg 
and  the  other  at  Fredericksburg.  These  schools 
were  to  be  open  only  to  women  on  account  of 

333 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

the  fact  that  eighty  per  cent  of  the  teachers 
in  the  elementary  schools  are  women. 

State  Normal  School  at  Harrisonburg.  — 
The  normal  school  at  Harrisonburg  opened  in 
September,  1909,  after  a  year  of  constructing 
buildings  under  the  direction  of  the  newly 
elected  president,  Julian  A.  Burruss,  of  Rich- 
mond. The  course  of  study  planned  by  him 
includes  some  of  the  modern  features  advocated 
by  the  leaders  in  the  campaign  for  a  more 
vital  and  a  more  democratized  course  of  study 
for  the  public  schools  of  the  state.  The  en- 
trance requirements  are  two  years  of  high  school 
training.  The  course  at  this  school  consists 
of  two  additional  years  of  high  school  work, 
together  with  two  years  of  professional  study. 
Domestic  economy,  manual  arts,  school  garden- 
ing, poultry  raising,  and  agriculture  are  striking 
features  of  the  course  at  this  institution.  These 
probably  receive  greater  emphasis  than  has 
ever  been  given  to  such  subjects  anywhere  in 
the  state.  Another  somewhat  unique  feature 
of  this  school  is  the  calendar  system  of  four 
quarters.     The  school  is  open  eleven  months 


EDUCATIONAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

in  the  year.  This  is  probably  the  first  attempt 
to  follow  such  a  calendar  in  any  schools  south 
of  the  Potomac  River. 

Men  are  admitted  to  the  summer  quarter. 
This  quarter  is  divided  into  two  terms  of  six 
weeks  each,  the  first  of  which  is  designated  as 
one  of  the  summer  institutes  in  the  state,  and 
is  attended  by  a  large  number  of  teachers  who 
are  preparing  for  examination  for  certificates 
or  for  the  renewing  of  certificates  they  already 
hold.  The  last  term  is  operated  by  the  normal 
school  directly  and  is  attended  by  teachers  and 
students  desiring  to  make  up  the  work  of  the 
regular  session. 

Another  important  feature  of  this  school  is 
the  plan  for  practice  teaching.  This  is  done  in 
one  of  the  Harrisonburg  graded  schools.  Cer- 
tain grades  in  this  school  are  designated  for  this 
use,  and  special  critic  teachers  have  immediate 
charge  of  the  work  of  the  grade  and  also  im- 
mediate supervision  of  the  student  teachers, 
all  of  whom  in  turn  are  under  a  special  super- 
visor who  is  a  member  of  the  faculty  of  the 
normal    school.      This    arrangement,    while    a 

335 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

very  delicate  and  difficult  matter  to  work  out, 
is  proving  very  satisfactory  to  both  the  public 
schools  of  the  town  and  the  normal  school 
authorities.  Another  feature  of  practice  teach- 
ing which  is  an  innovation  is  the  work  done  by 
the  student-teachers  of  the  industrial  arts  de- 
partment in  the  rural  schools  of  Rockingham 
County.  The  county  school  authorities,  in 
cooperation  with  the  normal  school,  have  ar- 
ranged for  cooking,  sewing,  manual  training,  and 
household  economy  to  be  taught  in  a  number  of 
the  schools  accessible  to  the  normal  school. 
These  classes  are  conducted  by  members  of  the 
senior  class  in  the  household  and  industrial 
arts  departments,  under  the  personal  direction 
of  a  special  supervisor.  This  plan  has  worked 
well  and  promises  to  be  a  permanent  feature 
of  the  normal  school  work.  During  the  last 
year  it  has  inaugurated  a  system  of  extension 
teaching  by  correspondence.  All  these  lines 
of  work,  while  more  or  less  in  the  nature  of  in- 
novations, are  being  carefully  worked  out,  and 
no  doubt  will  ultimately  become  the  permanent 
policy  of  the  public  school  system  of  the  state. 


EDUCATIONAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

State  Normal  School  at  Fredericksburg.  — 
Although  the  state  normal  schools  at  Fred- 
ericksburg and  at  Harrisonburg  were  provided 
for  in  the  same  legislative  act,  the  former  did 
not  open  its  doors  for  students  until  Septem- 
ber, 1911.  Mr.  E.  H.  Russell  was  elected 
president  of  this  school.  An  administration 
building,  dormitories,  and  president's  home 
were  erected,  and  the  first  year  the  dormitory 
capacity  at  this  school  was  exhausted  and  ap- 
plicants were  turned  away.  The  entrance  re- 
quirements are  that  an  applicant  shall  have 
exhausted  all  the  public  school  facilities  offered 
in  the  home  town.  This  practically  means  that 
students  can  enter  after  having  completed  the 
courses  in  the  elementary  schools.  For  the 
section  of  the  state  in  which  the  school  is  located, 
it  seems  necessary  at  this  time  to  maintain 
this  standard,  since  there  are  few  high  schools 
in  that  region.  The  plan  for  practice  teaching 
in  connection  with  this  school  is  similar  to 
that  in  the  Harrisonburg  Normal.  Certain 
grades  in  the  city  schools  of  Fredericksburg  are 
set  apart  for  this  purpose,  and  critic  teachers 
i  337 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

have  charge.  The  course  of  study  in  this 
school  follows  in  a  general  way  the  course  as 
outlined  in  the  school  at  Farmville,  giving  a 
four  years'  high  school  course  and  two  of  pro- 
fessional training  leading  to  the  requirements 
of  the  various  state  certificates.  The  summer 
session  at  this  school  is  four  weeks  in  length 
and  is  designated  as  one  of  the  summer  insti- 
tutes in  the  state. 

The  Normal  School  at  Radford.  —  The  State 
Normal  at  Radford  was  opened  in  1912,  with 
Dr.  J.  P.  McConnell  as  president.  This  insti- 
tution is  located  at  the  gateway  of  the  great 
southwestern  part  of  the  state,  which  section 
the  school  serves  in  a  peculiar  way.  The  en- 
trance requirements  are  the  same  as  those  of 
Fredericksburg  and  the  practice  schools  are  the 
city  schools  of  Radford.  The  course  of  study 
is  planned  to  meet  the  requirements  for  the 
various  state  certificates,  and  such  subjects  as 
domestic  science  and  the  manual  arts  are  given 
prominent  place.  This  school,  like  that  of 
Harrisonburg,  is  open  during  the  entire  year, 
the    summer   quarter   being   divided    into   two 


EDUCATIONAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

terms,  the  first  of  which  is  designated  as  one  of 
the  state  summer  institutes,  and  the  second  term 
is  conducted  as  a  part  of  the  regular  work  of 
the  school. 

In  each  of  these  schools  the  industrial  phases 
of  education  receive  special  attention,  and  the 
more  modern  principles  and  standards  are  em- 
phasized. The  school  at  Harrisonburg  rather 
set  the  pace  for  the  other  schools  in  these 
matters.  The  Normal  School  at  Farmville 1  up 
to  1909  maintained  a  high  school  course  2  with 
two  years  of  professional  or  pedagogical  work. 
Since  the  agitation  in  1905-06  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  public  schools  of  the  state, 
the  Farmville  Normal  School  has  revised  its 
course  of  study  and  increased  its  equipment 
and  general  facilities  for  teacher  training. 
The  number  of  students  has  increased  to  over 
six  hundred.  The  entrance  requirements  since 
1911  are  one  year  high  school  training.  The 
requirements  for  graduation  are  four  years  high 

1See  Chapter  XIII,  p.  249. 

2  "Up  to  1909,  the  Farmville  Female  Normal  School  was  the  only 
State  school  for  higher  learning  where  white  women  were  admitted." 
See  Some  Recent  Administration  in  Virginia,  p.  70,  Frank  Macgruder. 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

school,  plus  two  years  of  professional  work. 
Since  1888  the  state  has  subsidized  William 
and  Mary  College  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
pedagogical  training  to  men x  who  have  chosen 
teaching  as  a  profession.  Thus  there  are  in 
the  state  four  normal  schools  for  women  and 
one  for  men.  All  these  schools  give  instruction 
free  to  Virginia  students  who  pledge  themselves 
to  teach  at  least  two  years  after  graduation  in 
the  public  schools  of  the  state. 

Demonstration  and  Extension  Work.  —  "  The 
Cooperative  Demonstration  Work "  had  its 
origin  in  some  work  carried  on  in  Mississippi 
in  1906  under  Dr.  Seaman  A.  Knapp.  Later 
he  was  employed  by  the  General  Education 
Board  to  work  under  the  direction  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  work 
thus  organized  had  for  its  purpose  the  teaching 
of  men,  boys,  women,  and  girls  how  to  farm  success- 
fully and  how  to  manage  their  farms  and  their 
gardens  to  their  own  greater  advantage  and  to 
the  greater  advantage  of  the  nation.  This  was  to 
be  done  by  demonstration  agents  who  would 

1  See  Chapter  VI,  supra. 
340 


EDUCATIONAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

carry  expert  information  to  the  farmer  while 
he  was  at  work  on  the  farm.  Superintendent 
Eggleston  of  Virginia,  with  his  characteristic 
vision,  saw  the  possibilities  in  this  practical 
aspect  of  teaching,  and  sought  the  assistance  of 
Dr.  Knapp.  In  1907  the  work  was  tried  out 
in  two  or  three  counties  in  Virginia.  Mr.  T.  O. 
Sandy  of  Burke ville  was  put  in  charge  as  state 
agent.  The  next  year,  plans  were  made  to 
organize  boys'  corn  clubs  in  connection  with  the 
public  schools.  Each  boy  was  to  be  assigned 
an  acre  of  land  and  he  was  to  prepare  the  soil, 
select  the  seed,  and  cultivate  the  acre  under  the 
direction  of  a  demonstration  agent.  Notwith- 
standing some  rather  strong  opposition,  the  work 
grew  steadily  in  popularity  from  the  first,  and 
Virginia  led  the  other  southern  states  in  this 
new  educational  movement.  Immediately  the 
state  and  counties  became  interested,  and  ap- 
propriated money  to  carry  forward  and  extend 
the  work  of  organizing  the  corn  clubs.  At 
first  there  were  three  counties  organized,  next, 
twenty  counties,  and  then  forty  counties,  and  in 
1914  there  were  sixty  counties  organized  with 

341 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

county  demonstration  agents.  In  1908  the 
girls'  canning  and  poultry  clubs  were  organized 
and  Miss  Ella  Agnew  was  appointed  state 
agent  and  put  in  supervisory  charge.  The  same 
remarkable  progress  made  by  the  boys  charac- 
terized the  work  among  the  girls.  This  work 
was  consciously  kept  in  close  touch  with  the 
rural  schools.  The  interest  and  enthusiasm 
among  the  boys  and  girls  soon  spread  to  the 
farmers  themselves  and  they  cultivated  crops 
under  the  direction  of  the  demonstration  agents. 
In  1914  there  were  in  Virginia,  1  state  agent, 
4  district  agents,  50  local  agents,  and  5  special 
agents,  working  52  counties.  The  influence  of 
the  local  agents  was  felt  by  8000  farmers  and 
in  other  ways  reached  34,362  people  of  the 
state.  On  89  farms,  9706  acres  of  corn  were 
raised  under  demonstration  methods.  This 
year,  the  highest  yield  on  a  multiple  of  acres 
was  643  f  bushels  on  five  acres.  All  this  demon- 
stration work  is  now  carried  to  other  aspects 
of  farm  activity,  such  as  wheat,  grasses,  alfalfa, 
orchards,  dairying,  livestock,  hogs,  and  farm 
irrigation.     As  a  result  of  all  this  development, 

342 


EDUCATIONAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

farmers  are  organizing,  institutes  are  held,  co- 
operative buying  and  marketing  is  carried  on  in 
many  sections  of  the  state,  and  county  fairs 
are  being  revived.  School  fairs  have  been  in- 
augurated and  have  added  much  to  the  en- 
thusiasm of  the  movement.  By  this  means 
education  is  carried  to  the  farmer,  instead  of 
his  being  put  to  the  necessity  of  leaving  his  work 
and  attending  an  agricultural  college  in  some 
distant  part  of  the  state. 

In  1911  the  demonstration  work  was  organ- 
ized for  the  colored  people  and  placed  under  the 
supervision  of  Mr.  Jackson  Davis,  and  under 
his  wise  direction  valuable  service  has  been 
rendered  to  the  colored  farmer  in  Virginia. 

Sources  of  Funds  for  Demonstration  Work.  — 
When  the  demonstration  work  was  inaugurated 
in  Virginia  in  1906,  there  was  not  a  dollar 
in  the  state  available  for  this  purpose,  but,  at 
the  recommendation  of  Dr.  Knapp,  the  federal 
government  carried  the  work  for  a  while  as  an 
experiment.  Efforts  were  soon  made  to  get 
the  state  and  counties  interested  in  making 
appropriations   for   this   work.      The   state   at 

343 


HISTORY  OP  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

first  made  a  meagre  appropriation  for  this  pur- 
pose and  has  increased  it  from  year  to  year, 
until  now  $20,000  is  given  annually.  The  coun- 
ties began  by  appropriating  several  hundred 
dollars  each  year.  In  1914  the  total  amount 
given  by  the  counties  was  between  $25,000  and 
$35,000.  Under  the  recent  federal  act,  known 
as  the  Smith-Lever  bill,  the  state  receives 
$10,000  annually.  Besides  this,  the  federal  gov- 
ernment contributes  $40,000,  making  a  total 
of  all  sources  of  $100,000  for  carrying  on  the 
demonstration  work  in  the  state. 

The  administrative  machinery  for  distributing 
the  funds  for  the  demonstration  work  in  the 
state  at  first  was  the  United  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture created  by  legislative  act  in  1908.  In  1914 
this  Board  was  abolished  and  the  adminis- 
trative affairs  were  transferred  to  the  Virginia 
Polytechnic  Institute  at  Blacksburg,  from  which 
institution  the  state  demonstration  work  is  now 
directed  through  a  corps  of  experts  at  the 
college  and  state  agents  in  the  counties.  Thus, 
in  the  short  period  of  five  or  six  years,  this  im- 
portant practical  type  of  teaching  in  the  state 

344 


EDUCATIONAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

has  taken  more  or  less  permanent  form,  and 
from  now  on  the  efforts  of  those  in  charge  will 
seek  to  perfect  and  extend  the  work  until  all 
the  farm  interests  of  the  entire  state  shall 
feel  the  influence  of  this  direct  and  most  effec- 
tive kind  of  teaching. 

General  Summary.  —  The  administration  of 
Joseph  D.  Eggleston  in  achievement,  in  inspira- 
tional appeal  to  the  people,  in  sound  organiza- 
tion, in  democratic  and  practical  significance, 
in  the  enthusiastic  struggle  to  systematize  the 
educational  work  in  the  state,  in  effective 
personal  leadership,  and  in  the  wide  influence 
that  reached  not  only  to  the  boundaries  of  his 
own  state  but  to  the  states  throughout  the 
South,  is  comparable  to  the  struggle  and  ac- 
complishments in  the  wise  administration  of 
William  H.  Ruffner,  the  first  state  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction  in  Virginia.  Dr. 
Ruffner  gave  popular  education  in  the  state 
form  and  initial  momentum.  Mr.  Eggleston 
took  that  form  and  force  and  gave  to  the  in- 
stitution a  more  systematized,  democratic  effec- 
tiveness. 

345 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

The  provision  for  public  education  in  the  new 
constitution  of  1902  was  one  of  the  results  in 
Virginia  of  the  work  of  the  Capon  Springs 
Conference  and  the  Southern  Education  Board. 
It  laid  down  a  broad  and  a  more  democratic 
scheme  upon  which  to  found  a  system  of  popular 
education.  The  people  of  Virginia  were  stirred 
to  the  point  of  action  by  the  organized  efforts 
of  the  leaders  working  through  the  Cooperative 
Education  Association.  Mr.  Eggleston  came  in 
as  state  superintendent  when  the  enthusiasm 
for  better  educational  facilities  was  at  white 
heat.  It  was  an  opportune  time  for  a  man  of 
ideas  and  action.  He  at  once  realized  that  this 
enthusiasm  must  be  conserved  and  utilized  for 
great  educational  achievements.  He  took  stock 
of  the  situation  and  laid  down  a  programme  of 
procedure  which  resulted  in  the  remarkable 
series  of  accomplishments  which  characterized 
his  administration. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  outstanding 
features  of  his  work:  (1)  the  State  Department 
of  Education  was  systematized  so  that  its  influ- 
ence was  strong  and  effective  as  an  educational 

346 


EDUCATIONAL  ACHIEVEMENT 

force  in  the  state;  (2)  the  various  educational 
activities  of  the  state  were  unified  and  coalesced 
into  one  great  educational  effort,  directed  toward 
the  goal  of  popular  education;  (3)  a  series  of 
constructive  legislative  acts,  providing  for, 
(a)  a  state  system  of  high  schools,  (6)  a  loan 
fund  by  which  the  trustees  in  the  counties  might 
borrow  money  from  the  Literary  Fund  for  the 
purpose  of  erecting  school  buildings,  (c)  the  con- 
trol by  the  state  Board  of  Education  of  the 
systems  of  heating,  lighting,  and  ventilating  of 
school  buildings,  (d)  a  scheme  by  which  the 
division  superintendents'  salaries  could  be  in- 
creased so  as  to  secure  expert  supervision  of 
the  schools,  (e)  an  appropriation  to  encourage 
the  consolidation  of  one-room  schools  into  two 
or  three  room  schools,  (J)  the  establishing  and 
maintaining  of  normal  training  high  schools 
and  agricultural  high  schools,  (g)  compulsory 
education,  (h)  retirement  fund  for  teachers, 
(i)  establishment  of  three  state  normal  schools 
for  women,  (j)  the  control  of  the  sanitary  and 
health  conditions  about  the  schools,  (k)  a  system 
of  medical   inspection  of  the  school  children; 

347 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

(4)  a  system  of  demonstration  and  extension 
work  by  which  agriculture  and  kindred  subjects 
could  be  taught  through  the  organization  of 
boys'  corn  clubs  and  girls'  canning  and  poultry 
clubs. 

These  are  some  of  the  more  advanced  out- 
posts of  educational  progress  in  Virginia.  The 
present  and  future  leaders  in  the  state  will 
build  further  upon  these  basal  beginnings  the 
schools  of  to-morrow. 


348 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE   EDUCATION   OF   THE   NEGROES   IN   VIRGINIA 

Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Insti- 
tute. —  Hampton  Institute  grew  out  of  con- 
ditions of  the  slaves  set  free  by  the  Northern 
Army  advancing  upon  Richmond,  in  the  section 
of  Virginia  centering  around  Hampton  as  head- 
quarters. General  S.  C.  Armstrong  was  sent  to 
Hampton  as  a  representative  of  the  Freedmen's 
Bureau  to  adjust  the  difficulties  between  the 
races.  He  found  a  heterogeneous  mass  of 
negroes  under  the  care  of  the  government, 
doing  nothing  for  themselves,  depending  upon 
the  federal  government  for  rations.  These 
new  wards  of  the  government  were  utterly 
unfit  for  the  responsibility  of  citizenship  so 
soon  to  be  thrust  upon  them.  It  was  the 
task  of  General  Armstrong  to  organize  this 
mass   of  people   into   an   effective   community 

life. 

349 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION   IN  VIRGINIA 

General  Armstrong  withdrew  all  rations  ex- 
cept in  cases  of  the  infirm,  and  put  everybody 
to  work.  This  was  the  inception  of  Hamp- 
ton Institute  which  developed  into  so  remark- 
able an  educational  experiment.  General  Arm- 
strong had  a  firm  belief  in  the  moral  and 
intellectual  value  of  manual  labor.  He  took 
measures  for  the  building  of  homes  and  finally 
he  provided  schools,  where  proper  teachers 
and  leaders  might  be  trained  for  the  colored 
race.  The  American  Missionary  Association 
of  New  York,  in  1867,  had  purchased  "  Little 
Scotland,"  a  small  plantation  of  125  acres  on 
Hampton  River.  This  association  had  con- 
ducted schools  here  for  the  negroes  since  1862. 
This  was  the  material  and  spiritual  nucleus  of 
Hampton  Institute.  General  Armstrong  was 
invited  to  take  up  the  task  of  organizing  the 
work  for  the  education  of  the  negro  race  through- 
out the  whole  South.  For  the  support  of  the 
work  he  had  to  rely  upon  the  government 
through  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  and  the  chari- 
table and  philanthropic  spirit  of  the  American 
people.     It  was  his  plan  to  devise  means  by 

350 


EDUCATION  OF  NEGROES  IN  VIRGINIA 

which  the  students  might  pay  for  the  expense 
of  attending  the  school,  but  even  such  a  provi- 
sion costs  money.  Buildings,  shops,  and  general 
equipment  had  to  be  provided.  For  this  he 
had  to  look  to  the  charity  of  the  people  of  the 
North.  These  people  responded  liberally  to 
this  cause,  but  as  in  war,  only  "  one  shot  in 
four  hundred  hits." 

The  Work  of  the  School  to  Centre  around 
Manual  Labor.  —  General  Armstrong  had  seen 
in  operation  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  under  the 
direction  of  his  father,  a  missionary  to  those 
people,  a  manual  labor  school.  He  sought  to 
build  such  an  institution  at  Hampton.  The 
idea  was  not  popular  at  first,  but,  under  the 
wise  direction  of  General  Armstrong,  the  plan 
succeeded  beyond  the  hopes  of  those  who  had 
it  individually  in  charge.  He  laid  down  some 
principles  and  never  lost  sight  of  them.  Some 
of  these  principles  were:  (1)  that  the  purpose 
of  Hampton  Institute  was  to  make  the  negroes 
of  service  to  themselves,  their  people,  and 
the  white  race;  (2)  that  effectual  work  must 
have  intelligence  back  of  it,  in  order  to  give 

351 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

dignity  to  it ;  (3)  that  every  pupil  has  some  duty 
to  perform  and  for  the  performance  of  which 
he  must  feel  a  responsibility;  (4)  that  manual 
training  independent  of  utility  has  no  place  in 
the  course  of  study. 

The  negro  was  to  be  a  worker  along  industrial 
lines.  He  was  to  be  given  training  in  this  field, 
and  such  other  instruction  as  would  result  in 
independence  and  moral  and  Christian  char- 
acter. This  was  the  broad  platform  of  self- 
help  for  the  conduct  of  Hampton  Institute. 

The  school  opened  in  1868  with  two  teachers 
and  fifteen  pupils.  In  1870  the  legislature  of 
Virginia  granted  a  charter,  which  provided  for 
a  non-sectarian  Board  of  Trustees  of  seventeen 
members,  independent  of  any  association,  sect, 
or  government.  The  funds  for  the  first  build- 
ings were  donated  largely  by  the  Freedmen's 
Bureau.  The  work  of  the  school  was  brought 
to  the  attention  of  men  and  women  of  wealth 
in  the  North,  and  gifts  came  year  after  year 
with  which  the  institution  was  able  to  make 
substantial  progress  in  developing  the  plant 
to   its   present   enormous    capacity.     In    1878 

352 


EDUCATION  OF  NEGROES  IN  VIRGINIA 

the  first  Indian  students  were  accepted.  A 
lot  of  captives  taken  in  the  Indian  wars  (1873) 
in  the  West  had  been  taken  to  Fort  Marion  at 
St.  Augustine,  Florida,  for  incarceration.  They 
were  given  the  choice  of  being  set  at  liberty  to 
return  to  their  tribes  or  to  go  to  Hampton  for 
training.  Seventeen  of  them  chose  to  go  to 
Hampton  and  study  the  arts  and  ways  of  the 
white  man.  This  experiment  led  to  the  policy 
of  the  federal  government  to  train  and  educate 
the  Indian  instead  of  supporting  him  on  reser- 
vations. 

These  are  some  of  the  events  that  determined 
the  scope  and  policies  of  the  future  work  at 
Hampton  Institute.  From  1880  to  the  pres- 
ent (1916),  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural 
Institute  has  had  a  constant  growth  and  an 
ever  widening  sphere  of  usefulness.  In  1893 
General  Armstrong  died  and  Dr.  H.  B.  Frissell 
was  made  principal,  and  the  institution  under 
his  wise  administration  has  continued  to  grow 
into  still  greater  usefulness. 

Buildings  and  Grounds.  —  The  school  has 
added  to  its  landholdings  from  time  to  time 
2  a  353 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

until  it  now  owns  1100  acres,  much  of  it  under 
cultivation  by  the  students  in  the  department 
of  agriculture.  It  has  140  buildings.  These 
have  been  added  from  year  to  year,  as  funds 
by  gifts  and  otherwise  became  available.  The 
work  of  construction  of  some  of  the  buildings 
was  done  by  the  students.  The  buildings  con- 
sist of  dormitories,  —  Stone  dormitory  and 
Graves'  cottage  for  boys,  and  Virginia  Hall  ! 
for  girls,  administration  buildings,  memorial 
church,  Whittier  training  school,  Huntington 
industrial  building,  machine  shops,  Whipple 
Barn  and  Peabody  Dairy,  Armstrong-Slater 
memorial,  trade  school,  Cleveland  Hall,  chapel, 
library,  and  domestic  science  building.  The 
campus  is  beautifully  laid  out  with  drive- 
ways and  trees  and  shrubbery,  —  all  making  a 
beautiful  village;  on  every  hand  there  is  evi- 
dence of  the  finest  taste  and  cleanliness.  The 
funds  for  these  buildings  in  almost  every  case 
came  from  philanthropic  sources.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  striking  examples  in  America  of  the 
good  results  of  the  philanthropic  spirit. 

1  This  building  was  "sung  up"  by  the  Hampton  singers. 
354 


EDUCATION  OF  NEGROES  IN  VIRGINIA 

The  Academic  Work  at  Hampton.  —  Hamp- 
ton Institute  is  an  industrial  school,  with 
the  emphasis  upon  the  side  of  utility.  But  an 
academic  department  is  maintained  to  give  the 
necessary  basis  for  intellectual  labor.  Here, 
too,  the  idea  of  utility  is  uppermost  and  the 
training  is  related  to  the  direct  needs  of  the 
students  in  the  various  lines  of  work  at  Hamp- 
ton, and  for  the  peculiar  life  needs  after  the 
students  leave  the  school. 

The  academic  entrance  requirements  are  not 
rigid,  but,  roughly  speaking,  students  are  sup- 
posed to  have  finished  at  least  five  grades  in 
the  elementary  schools.  The  other  require- 
ments are:  (1)  good  health,  (2)  earnestness  of 
purpose,  (3)  honesty,  faithfulness,  (4)  the  attain- 
ment of  the  age  of  seventeen  years,  (5)  certificate 
of  vaccination,  and  the  above  academic  train- 
ing. 

The  academic  course  comprises  in  general 
two  years  of  the  elementary  school  work  and 
two  of  the  high  school,  but  recently  the  course 
has  been  extended  so  as  to  cover  the  four-year 
high    school    course.      Usually    the    academic 

355 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

sessions  are  held  at  night,  the  day  being 
given  to  work  on  the  farm  or  in  the  trade 
school. 

The  following  four-year  courses  are  open  to 
boys :  (1)  academic  normal  course  for  the 
preparation  of  teachers,  (2)  agricultural  course, 
(3)  business  course,  (4)  trade  course,  includ- 
ing blacksmithing,  bricklaying,  and  plastering, 
cabinet  making,  carpentering,  machine  work, 
painting,  printing,  shoemaking,  steam  fitting 
and  plumbing,  tailoring,  tinsmithing,  upholster- 
ing, and  wheelwrighting.  Military  drill  is  re- 
quired of  the  boys,  in  compliance  with  the  Morrill 
act.  For  the  girls  the  courses  offered  are  :  (1) 
academic  normal  course,  (2)  home  economics 
course,  (3)  library  course,  (4)  matron's  course. 

Scholarship  and  Endowments.  —  The  source 
of  the  funds  of  Hampton  Institute  are  one- 
third  of  the  Virginia  share  of  the  Morrill  act, 
the  Freedmen's  Bureau,  the  Slater  Fund,  the 
Peabody  Board,  the  General  Education  Board, 
Hampton  Committees  in  Boston,  New  York, 
Brooklyn,  Philadelphia,  Springfield,  Orange, 
Taunton,    and    the    Indian    Associations,    and 

356 


EDUCATION  OF  NEGROES  IN  VIRGINIA 

numerous  individual  donors.  The  endowment 
fund  in  1910  was  $2,180,376.38.  The  current 
expenses  for  that  year  amounted  to  $250,000. 
It  is  necessary  each  year  for  Dr.  Frissell  to 
raise  $150,000,  to  meet  the  running  expenses  of 
the  institute.  Scholarships  are  provided  for 
about  one-half  of  the  students.  The  students 
pay  for  their  board  out  of  their  earnings  on  the 
farm,  in  the  trade  school,  in  laundry,  or  other 
departments  of  work. 

Ideals  and  Influence  of  Hampton  Institute.  — 
Hampton  Institute  has  been  from  the  beginning 
the  embodiment  and  continued  fulfilment  of  a 
set  of  definite  and  fundamental  ideals:  (1)  the 
use  of  industry  in  such  a  way  as  to  obtain  the 
greatest  results  in  character  and  mental  force; 
(2)  to  know  and  feel  the  meaning  and  dignity 
of  labor;  (3)  to  give  to  the  negro  and  Indian  such 
instruction  as  will  enable  them  to  make  good 
homes  for  themselves  and  prepare  them  to 
teach  the  members  of  their  own  race  how  to 
keep  their  houses  clean  and  sanitary;  (4)  to 
prepare  leaders  who  will  be  able  to  carry  on 
activities  in  agriculture  and  in  trades,  thereby 

357 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

raising  the  standard  of  social  efficiency  and 
citizenship;  (5)  the  whole  to  go  on  in  a  deeply- 
religious  atmosphere.  These  ideals  have  con- 
stantly been  the  guiding  factors  that  have 
made  Hampton  Institute  one  of  the  strong, 
positive  forces  in  the  social  and  economic  re- 
demption of  the  negro  race  in  the  South.  The 
school  has  endeavored  to  train  leaders  for  two 
races,  —  leaders  in  agriculture,  in  industrial 
education,  in  business,  in  home  building,  in 
improving  church  and  home  life,  in  public 
school  work,  and  in  foreign  missions. 

It  is  difficult  to  make  a  concrete  estimate  of 
the  value  and  influence  of  the  work  done  at 
Hampton.  More  than  nine  thousand  young 
people  have  had  the  benefit  of  Hampton  ideals 
and  training.  They  have  for  the  most  part  gone 
back  to  their  own  people  and  have  become  cen- 
tres of  influence,  —  teachers,  farmers,  skilled 
mechanics,  and  thrifty  home  makers.  Hamp- 
ton Institute  has  directly  or  indirectly  been  in- 
fluential in  the  establishing  and  organization 
of  many  schools  for  the  negroes  in  every  south- 
ern state.     Booker  Washington,  a  graduate  of 

358 


EDUCATION  OF  NEGROES  IN  VIRGINIA 

Hampton,  was  called  by  the  state  authorities 
of  Alabama  to  superintend  some  work  for  the 
negroes  at  Tuskegee.  The  famous  "  Tuskegee 
Institute  "  was  the  outgrowth  of  this  simple 
beginning.  Hampton  has  demonstrated  the 
effectiveness  of  industrial  education,  and  the 
training  for  white  children  in  agriculture  and 
other  industrial  lines  has  followed  the  standards 
so  effectively  carried  out  at  Hampton  Institute. 
The  Virginia  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute 
at  Petersburg  (1882). — The  Virginia  Normal 
and  Industrial  Institute  was  established  by  an 
act  of  the  state  legislature  in  March,  1882. 
The  act  provided  that  the  school  should  be 
under  the  management  and  control  of  a  Board 
of  Visitors  composed  of  seven  men.  It  directed 
that  the  school  should  offer  collegiate  and  pro- 
fessional courses.  A  normal  course  was  to  be 
offered  of  not  more  than  three  years  in  length. 
The  sum  of  $100,000  was  appropriated  from  the 
proceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  Atlantic,  Mississippi, 
and  Ohio  railroads  for  the  purchasing  of  a 
site  and  the  erection  of  buildings,  and  $20,000 
annually  for  running  expenses.     The  Board  of 

359 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Visitors  selected  the  "  Fleet  Farm  "  near  Peters- 
burg, and  ordered  the  building  to  be  erected. 
This  was  completed  in  the  spring  of  1888  after 
some  additional  appropriations  had  been  made 
for  the  purpose. 

The  school  opened  in  1883  with  three  de- 
partments, (1)  normal,  (2)  academic,  (3)  college. 
From  1889  to  1902,  college  courses  were  offered 
and  forty-nine  persons  received  the  degree  of 
A.B.  At  the  latter  date,  the  legislature  revised 
the  charter,  changing  the  name  of  the  school 
to  the  Virginia  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute. 
The  college  work  was  abandoned  and  an  in- 
dustrial department  was  substituted.  The 
purpose  of  making  these  changes  was  to 
make  the  school  serve  the  state  as  a  normal 
school  for  preparation  of  teachers  for  the  negro 
schools. 

The  Curricula  and  Standards  for  Gradua- 
tion. —  Students  are  admitted  in  September 
and  January.  The  requirements  for  admission 
to  the  school  are  the  completion  of  the  work 
done  in  the  sixth  grade  of  the  public  schools. 
The  academic  course  covers  the  work  of  the 

360 


EDUCATION  OF  NEGROES  IN  VIRGINIA 

usual  high  school  curricula.  In  addition  to 
these,  courses  are  offered  in  normal  training, 
covering  two  years,  and  courses  in  domestic 
science  and  agriculture.  All  students,  both 
boys  and  girls,  are  required  to  take  courses 
in  agriculture. 

Buildings  and  Equipment.  —  The  school  owns 
forty  acres  of  land,  twenty-four  of  which  are 
under  cultivation.  There  are  ten  buildings, 
the  main  one  being  a  four-story  brick  structure 
367  feet  long.  The  buildings  are  fully  equipped 
for  work  in  domestic  science,  agriculture,  and 
manual  training.  There  is  a  training  school 
connected  with  the  normal  department. 

Summary.  —  This  school  was  established 
during  the  "  readjuster "  regime  in  Virginia 
politics.  At  first,  it  gave  college  courses  in 
connection  with  the  normal  department.  In 
1902  the  legislature  changed  the  charter  so  as 
to  provide  training  along  industrial  lines  and 
preparation  of  teachers  for  the  negro  public 
schools  of  the  state.  All  state  students  are 
exempt  from  tuition  fees.  This  is  the  state 
school,  established,  maintained,  and  controlled 

361 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

by  the  state  of  Virginia  for  the  training  of  negro 
teachers  of  the  public  schools. 

Public  Schools  for  Negroes.  —  Public  schools 
for  negroes  in  Virginia  were  inaugurated  under 
the  constitution  of  1869.  This  constitution  was 
formulated  during  the  reconstruction  regime  by 
the  convention  which  was  held  in  December, 
1867.1  The  twenty-four  negroes  in  this  con- 
vention urged  the  establishment  of  a  system  of 
schools  which  the  white  and  colored  children 
should  attend  together.  The  debates  upon  this 
point  grew  tense,  but  many  radicals  stood  out 
for  a  dual  system,  and  the  various  proposals 
for  "mixed  schools"  did  not  prevail.2  The 
comprehensive  plan  for  public  education  sub- 
mitted to  the  legislature  in  1870  by  Rev.  W.  H. 
Ruffner,  the  newly  elected  state  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  included  a  system  of 
schools  for  the  negroes  on  the  same  basis  as 
the  schools  for  the  white  children.  In  many 
instances  at  first,  particularly  in  the  cities, 
white  teachers  were  assigned  to  the  schools  for 

1  See  supra,  pp.  214-15. 

2  See  South  Atlantic  Quarterly,  Vol.  XV,  pp.  27-28,  E.  W.  Knight. 

362 


EDUCATION  OP  NEGROES  IN  VIRGINIA 

negro  children,  but  soon  a  sufficient  number  of 
teachers  of  their  own  race  became  available. 
There  was  a  strong  public  opinion  in  Virginia 
against  the  education  of  the  negro.  The  opposi- 
tion to  the  public  school  system  inaugurated  by 
Rev.  W.  H.  Ruffner  centred  about  the  provi- 
sion in  the  law  for  the  equal  opportunity  of  the 
negroes  in  public  education.  In  1872  the 
state  superintendent  asked  the  county  su- 
perintendents whether  the  colored  people  mani- 
fested a  desire  for  education.  The  replies 
were  in  almost  every  case  in  the  affirmative.  In 
some  instances,  the  reports  show  that  the 
average  attendance  in  the  negro  school  was 
better  than  the  white  schools.  There  was  a 
great  difficulty  in  obtaining  competent  teachers 
and  suitable  buildings  for  the  negro  schools. 
In  his  annual  reports  of  1871  and  1872,  Su- 
perintendent Ruffner  makes  arguments  for  the 
education  of  the  negro  on  the  basis  of  capacity 
for  education  and  value  of  training  the  negro, 
which  he  says  is  an  important  factor  in  Virginia 
civilization.  His  conclusion  is  that  the  state 
cannot  afford  not  to  give  them  the  same  oppor- 

363 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

tunities  for  elementary  education  that  are 
given  the  white  children.  He  gives  statistical 
proof  of  the  ability  of  the  negro  to  learn,  by 
figures  obtained  from  the  Freedmen's  Bureau 
at  the  closing  of  the  bureau  in  1870.  There 
were  2677  negro  schools  in  the  eleven  southern 
states,  3300  teachers,  and  149,581  pupils. 
There  were  74  high  and  normal  schools.  Be- 
sides these  secular  schools,  there  were  1562 
Sunday  schools,  with  6007  teachers  and  97,752 
pupils.  All  this  had  been  accomplished  within 
the  period  of  ten  years. 

The  Peabody  Education  Board,  through  its 
field  secretaries,  first  Dr.  Sears  and  later  Dr. 
J.  L.  M.  Curry,  distributed  money  to  the  negro 
schools.  The  Slater  and  Jeans  funds  were 
other  sources  of  support  that  supplemented 
the  state  money  for  negro  education.  The 
more  modern  ideals  have  sought  to  make  the 
training  in  the  public  schools  for  the  negro 
children  of  direct  practical  benefit  to  the  race. 
Courses  in  manual  training,  domestic  science, 
and  industrial  arts  are  emphasized.  In  recent 
years,    a    special     state    supervisor    has    done 


EDUCATION  OF  NEGROES  IN  VIRGINIA 

much  to  stimulate  the  schools  to  effective  work. 
The  following  table  will  show  the  progress 
made  by  the  schools  for  the  negro  race. 

Growth  of  Negro  Schools 


Year 

Number  of 

School 

Age, 

15-21 

Enrol- 
ment 

Daily 
Attend- 
ance 

Percent- 
age op 
Attend- 
ance 

Number 

OF 

Teachers 

Months 
Taught 

Percent- 
age of 
Teachers 
Who  are 
Colored 

1871 

164,019 

38,554 

23,452 

14.2 

706 

70 

1875 

202,640 

54,911 

29,871 

14.7 

1,064 

50 

1880 

240,980 

68,600 

38,764 

16.0 

1,256 

62 

1885 

265,249 

109,108 

60,845 

22.9 

1,917 

86 

1890 

275,388 

122,059 

63,317 

22.9 

2,153 

91 

1895 

268,503 

120,453 

64,700 

24.0 

2,243 

92 

1900 

265,258 

119,898 

66,549 

25.0 

2,335 

93 

1905 

214,152 " 

110,059 

62,621 

29.1 

2,233 

97 

1910 

217,525 

119,657 

73,155 

33.6 

2,393  2 

5.99 

99 

1  Between  7  and  20  years  (new  constitution  1902). 

2  In  1910  the  average  salary  a  month  for  teachers  was :  colored 
male,  $31.21;  colored  female,  $27.82.  Annual  cost  of  teaching  each 
colored  child  $5.60.     Percentage  of  state  revenue,  colored,  3  per  cent. 


365 


CHAPTER  XIX 

SPECIAL   TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS 

Besides  the  technical  courses  offered  at  the 
state  schools,  —  the  University  of  Virginia, 
Virginia  Military  Institute,  and  the  Poly- 
technic Institute,  —  two  special  schools,  pri- 
vately endowed  or  maintained,  have  been  giving 
special  trade  or  technical  courses.  One  is  the 
Virginia  Mechanics  Institute  at  Richmond  and 
the  Miller  Manual  Labor  School,  near  Crozet, 
in  Albemarle  County. 

The  Virginia  Mechanics  Institute.  —  The 
Virginia  Mechanics  Institute  was  founded  in 
1854  in  Richmond  and  operated  on  a  small 
scale  for  a  while  at  first.  The  purpose  of  the 
school  was  to  give  training  in  the  "  Scientific 
and  Mechanic  Arts."  The  school  was  in- 
corporated by  the  General  Assembly  of  Vir- 
ginia in  January,  1856.  It  held  an  annual 
exhibition  of  manufactures  and  maintained  a 

366 


SPECIAL  TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS 

school  in  which  the  various  mechanic  arts  were 
taught.  In  1857  a  commodious  building  was 
erected.  The  institute  started  with  no  en- 
dowment or  available  funds  except  the  funds 
arising  from  the  issuance  of  bonds  of  $25,000. 
The  enterprise  was  conducted  with  fair  success 
until  1861,  when  the  buildings  were  occupied 
by  the  War,  Navy,  and  Patent  offices  of  the 
Confederate  States'  government.  At  the  evac- 
uation of  Richmond  in  1865  the  building, 
together  with  the  records  and  models,  was 
destroyed  by  fire.  There  was  nothing  done  to 
revive  the  school  until  1884,  when  the  enterprise 
was  reorganized  as  a  night  school  for  the 
teaching  of  technological  subjects.  The  school 
was  conducted  in  rented  buildings  until  1902, 
during  which  time  the  number  of  students  in- 
creased, and  the  city  of  Richmond  favored  it 
with  annual  appropriations.  During  that  year 
346  students  were  enrolled.  From  1884  to 
the  present  the  following  men  have  served  as 
the  head  officials  of  the  school:  George  H. 
Anslie  to  1889,  Dr.  Henry  C.  Jones  to  1892, 
W.  J.  Whitehurt  from  1892  to  the  present  time. 

367 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

In  1907  the  office  of  superintendent  was  created, 
and  Frank  W.  Duke  was  elected  to  this  posi- 
tion and  has  direct  charge  of  the  institute  at 
present. 

The  school  now  owns  property  to  the  value 
of  $125,000.  It  has  a  library  of  3000  volumes 
and  a  student  enrolment  of  nearly  600.  It 
maintains  the  following  departments:  (1) 
mathematics,  (2)  science,  (3)  drawing,  de- 
signing, and  modelling,  (4)  engineering,  (5) 
mechanical  shops,  (6)  language,  (7)  commerce, 
(8)  telegraphy.  The  city  of  Richmond  during 
the  last  decade  has  developed  large  industrial 
interests,  and  this  school  supplies  a  real  need 
for  apprenticeship  and  technical  training  for 
this  large  centre  of  population.  The  school 
has  maintained  itself  without  any  appreciable 
endowment,  but  many  friends  of  the  institution 
in  Richmond  have  rallied  to  its  support  in  time 
of  need. 

Miller  Manual  Labor  School.  —  The  Miller 
Manual  Labor  School  of  Albemarle  County  is 
a  highly  endowed  institution  for  the  training 
of  the  poor  boys  and  girls  of  Albemarle  County. 

368 


SPECIAL  TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS 

The  will  of  Samuel  Miller,1  who  died  in  1869, 
a  native  of  the  county,  but  then  a  resident  of 
Lynchburg,  contained  a  bequest  amounting  to 
about  one  million  dollars  for  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  a  school  for  the  poor  chil- 
dren of  Albemarle  County.  After  five  years 
of  litigation  the  courts  dismissed  the  suits 
against  the  estate  and  the  school  was  planned 
and  commodious  buildings  were  erected  near 
Crozet.  The  will  devised  that  the  funds  be 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  governor  of  Virginia, 
the  attorney-general,  the  state  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  and  the  second  auditor, 
these  constituting  a  Board  of  Corporation  for 
the  management  of  the  funds  of  the  Miller 
Manual  Labor  School.  The  charter  provides 
that  the  judge  of  Albemarle  County  be  made 


1  Samuel  Miller  was  a  poor  boy  living  in  the  "Ragged  Mountains" 
of  Albemarle  County.  While  gathering  blackberries  with  his  brother 
John,  they  planned  to  accumulate  property  and  ultimately  endow  a 
school  for  the  poor  children  of  their  native  county.  During  the  Civil 
War,  Indiana  troops  under  General  Hunter  pillaged  the  Miller  home  near 
Lynchburg  and  carried  away  securities,  and  by  court  proceedings  in 
Indiana  appropriated  the  fund  to  their  own  use,  but  Samuel  Miller 
appeared  and  succeeded  in  having  the  original  decree  revoked  and  thus 
saved  the  fund  for  himself  and  ultimately  for  the  Miller  school. 

2  b  369 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

an  ex  officio  member  of  the  Board,  and  that  he 
appoint  two  other  citizens  of  the  county  to 
serve  with  him  as  a  Board  of  Visitors  to  manage 
the  affairs  of  the  school.  In  the  year  1878 
the  Board  elected  Professor  C.  E.  Vawter  of 
Emory  College,  superintendent,  by  whose  native 
intelligence,  fine  attainments,  and  rare  execu- 
tive ability,  the  school  was  planned  and  put 
into  operation.  The  school  was  opened  for 
pupils  in  October,  1878.  Only  twenty-one  boys 
were  enrolled  the  first  year.  The  first  girls 
were  enrolled  in  November,  1884.  The  num- 
ber of  both  sexes  has  steadily  increased  until  at 
present  there  are  nearly  300  students  at  the 
school. 

The  Miller  School  was  among  the  first  schools 
in  America  with  the  distinct  purpose  of  giving 
courses  in  industrial  education.  At  first  there 
was  an  evident  prejudice  against  it  as  a  manual 
labor  school.  Several  institutions  in  the  North 
were  trying  out  the  experiment,  but  at  best 
were  feeling  their  way.  To  start  such  a  school 
in  the  South  was  a  still  more  doubtful  enter- 
prise.    To  dignify  labor  in  the  South  was  no 

370 


SPECIAL  TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS 

easy  task.  There  was  opposition  everywhere 
and  sympathy  nowhere.  Manual  labor  was 
the  peculiar  occupation  of  the  negro,  and  the 
white  people  felt  it  undignified  to  engage  in 
such  activities.  To  educate  away  from  this 
false  idea  was  the  task  of  the  Miller  School. 
Superintendent  Vawter,  with  this  idea  in  view, 
planned  a  magnificent  building  in  which  to 
house  the  shops,  and  employed  the  best-equipped 
teachers  in  New  England  to  carry  on  the  work 
of  instruction.  He  studied  the  schools  in  the 
North  that  were  doing  this  type  of  manual  work 
and  selected  what  seemed  to  him  to  be  the  best 
features  of  the  schools  he  studied,  and  in- 
corporated them  into  the  school  in  Albemarle. 
At  first  the  manual  labor  was  so  unpopular 
that  many  pupils  were  admitted  who  did  not 
come  under  the  head  of  "  poor  "  children,  but, 
in  a  few  years,  the  school  was  filled  with  the 
class  of  pupils  for  which  it  was  originally  in- 
tended. In  1901  the  county  school  board 
met  to  recommend  appointments  to  the  county 
judge.  There  were  ten  vacancies  to  fill  and 
150  applicants. 

371 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Curricula  and  Requirements  for  Admission.  — 
The  requirements  for  admission  are  (1)  that  the 
children  be  residents  of  Albemarle  County,  (2) 
they  must  be  between  the  ages  of  ten  and 
fourteen,  (3)  they  must  be  selected  from  the 
indigent  or  poor  class. 

The  course  of  study  covers  the  usual 
branches  in  the  four  upper  grades  of  the  elemen- 
tary school,  and,  in  addition,  courses  in  manual 
training,  sewing,  and  cooking  for  the  girls,  and 
shop  and  farm  work  for  the  boys.  The  higher 
courses  correspond  to  the  academic  work  of  a 
modern  four-year  high  school,  with  additional 
work  in  technical  subjects  in  the  following 
fields :  woodwork,  metal  work,  foundry  work, 
mechanics,  agriculture,  and  horticulture. 

Buildings  and  Equipment.  —  The  farm  con- 
sists of  1200  acres  of  land,  much  of  it  woodland, 
and  a  large  acreage  of  alluvial  land  under  a 
high  state  of  cultivation.  There  are  over  a 
dozen  buildings  making  up  the  group,  all  of 
which  are  of  the  best  in  design  and  architecture. 
The  equipment  is  most  complete  in  every  re- 
spect. 

372 


SPECIAL  TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS 

The  Miller  Manual  Labor  School  is  a  trade 
school  for  the  poor  boys  and  girls  of  Albemarle 
County.  It  is  highly  endowed  and  has  had  a 
long  history  of  usefulness.  Its  graduates  have 
gone  into  many  lines  of  work.  Many  are 
teachers  and  others  have  gone  into  technical 
fields. 


373 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Analectic  Magazine,  Philadelphia,  1819,  Vol.  XIII. 

Beverley's  History  of  Virginia,  Virginia  Library,  Richmond. 

Colonial  Entry  Book,  Virginia  Library,  Richmond. 

Commissioners'  Report,  U.  S.,  Vol.  I,  1890-91. 

Calendar  of  Board  Minutes,  Hampden-Sidney  College,  Morrison. 

Census  Report,  U.  S.,  1860. 

Circular  of  Information,  University  of  Virginia,  Herbert  Adams. 

Educational  Charters,  A.  F.  Leach. 
Economic  History  of  Virginia,  Vols.  I  and  II. 

Force's  Historical  Tracts,  Virginia  Library,  Richmond. 
Fithian's  Journal  and  Letters,  Virginia  Library,  Richmond. 
Five  Years  of  High  School  Progress  in  Virginia,  Bruce  R.  Payne. 

Hening's  Statutes,  Vols.  I,  II,  HI,  and  IV. 
Historical  Papers,  W.  &  L.  University. 
History  of  Education  in  Modern  Times,  Graves. 
History  of  Williamsburg,  Lyon  G.  Tyler. 
History  of  Randolph-Macon  College,  Irby. 
History  of  Mary  Baldwin  Seminary,  Waddell. 

Institutional  History  of  Virginia,  Vols.  I  and  n. 

Journals  of  the  House  of  Burgesses. 

Journals  of  the  Senate  and  House,  Virginia  State  Library,  Rich- 
mond. 
Jefferson,  Cabell,  and  the  University  of  Virginia,  Patton. 
Jefferson's  Complete  Works,  H.  A.  Washington. 

375 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Jefferson  and  Cabell  Letters. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  John  Sharp  Williams. 

Jefferson's  Letters,  Paul  Leicester  Ford. 

Life  of  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  Edwin  A.  Alderman. 

Morrison  Manuscripts,  Virginia  Academies. 

Military  History  of  Virginia  Military  Institute,  J.  C.  Wise. 

Narrative  of  my  Life,  Judge  F.  T.  Brook,  Virginia  Library, 
Richmond. 

Old  Virginia  and  her  Neighbors,  Fiske,  Vols.  I  and  II. 
Old  Churches  and  Families  of  Virginia,  Bishop  Meade,  Vols.  I, 
H. 

Present  State  of  Virginia,  Hugh  Jones. 

Poor  Children  and  Orphans,  William  and   Mary    Quarterly, 
Vol.  V. 

Reports  of  the  Second  Auditor,  1818-1855. 

Report  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation,  1911,  Henry  Pritchett. 

Some  Recent  Administration  in  Virginia,  Frank  A.  Macgruder, 

Johns  Hopkins  Press. 
State  Intervention  in  English  Education,  de  Montmorency. 
State  School  Reports,  Ruffner,  12  vols. 
South  Atlantic  Quarterly,  Vol.  XV.,  January,  1916. 
State  School  Reports,    Virginia. 
Semi-Annual,  Hollins  College,  1896. 
Social  History  of  Virginia,  Bruce. 

The  Patrician  and  Plebeian  in  Virginia,  Wertenbaker. 
The  General  Education  Board,  Flexner. 

Virginia  Vetusta,  Neill. 

Virginia  Gazette. 

Virginia  Journal  of  Education,  Vols.  I-XVIII. 

376 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Virginia  Schools  before  and  after  the  Revolution,  McCabe. 
Virginia  State  Papers. 
Virginia  Carolorum,  Neill. 

William  and  Mary  College,  Lyon  G.  Tyler. 
William  and  Mary  Quarterly. 
Works  of  Capt.  John  Smith,  Arber. 


377 


INDEX 


Academia  Virginiensis  et  Oxoniensis, 

67,  68. 
Academies,  curriculum  of,  131. 

growth  of,  127. 

Morrison  Ms.  quoted  on,132-135. 

names  of,  125-126. 

period  of,  124-136. 
Academy,  Eaton,  45. 

Symms,  44. 
Agricultural  schools,  328. 
Alderman,  Edwin  A.,  first  president 
of  the  University  of  Virginia, 
quoted,  308. 
Alexander,  Archibald,  quoted,  132. 
Apprenticeship  laws :   1643,  29. 

1646,  30,  31. 

1672,  32. 

1705,  33. 

1748,  33. 

summary  of,  34. 
Armstrong,  S.  C,  247,   349,  350, 
351. 

Berkeley,  Governor,  famous  words 
of,  37. 

Beverley's  "History  of  Virginia," 
quoted,  47. 

Blair,  Rev.  James,  71,  72,  75,  76, 
79,  85. 

Brasserton  School,  83. 

Buchannon,  John  L.,  administra- 
tion of,  251,  252. 

Camm,  Rev.  John,  88. 

Capon  Springs  Conference,  306, 307. 

Charity  schools:  in  England,  11. 

in  Virginia,  46,  47. 
Church  and  education,  2. 


Cincinnati  Society,  148. 

City  schools :  of  Alexandria,  271. 

of  Bristol,  277. 

of  Danville,  276. 

of  Fredericksburg,  272,  273. 

of  Norfolk,  262-263. 

of  Petersburg,  264,  265. 

of  Portsmouth,  275. 

of  Richmond,  266-269. 

of  Roanoke,  277. 

of  Staunton,  273-275. 

of  Williamsburg,  276. 
Coleman,  Frederick,  132,  133. 
Colleges :  Bridgewater,  302. 

Central,  178,  185. 

Emory  and  Henry,  159-164. 

Hampden-Sidney,  139-147. 

Henrico,  62-66. 

Hollins,  281-287. 

Intermont,  302. 

Martha  Washington,  302. 

Randolph-Macon,  151-155. 

Randolph-Macon  Woman's,  293- 
296. 

Richmond,  155-159. 

Roanoke,  166-170. 

Sullins,  302. 

Sweetbriar,  297. 

Washington,  147-149. 

West  Hampton,  300-302. 

William  and  Mary,  69-99. 
Colonists,  antecedents  of  the,  16- 

26. 
Compulsory  education,  347. 
Concord  Academy,  132,  133. 
Constitutional  Convention :  of  1868, 
214. 

of  1902,  310-312. 


379 


INDEX 


CoSperative  Education  Association, 

312-318. 
Coordinate  college,  304. 
Copeland,  Rev.  Mr.,  42. 
County     commissioners,     excerpts 

from  reports  of,  115-119. 
County  institutes,  238. 
Crooke,  Robert,  44. 
Curry,  Dr.  L.  J.  M.,  quoted,  211, 

212. 

Dawson,  Rev.  Thomas,  88. 
Demonstration  work,  340-345. 
Dew,  Thomas  R.,  93,  94. 
Dike,  Mr.,  43. 
Dissenters,  137. 

Division  superintendents,  excerpts 
from  reports  of,  131-134. 

Early  settlers,  16. 
Eaton,  Dr.  Thomas,  45. 
Education  :  critical  period  of  public, 
225-228. 
elementary,  100-103. 
growth  of  public,  244-245. 
higher,  for  women,  280-304. 
negro,  251-265. 
sentiment  for  public,  228-230. 
Educational  renaissance,  305-320. 
Eggleston,  Joseph  D.,  administra- 
tion of,  321-348. 
president  of  Virginia  Polytechnic 
Institute,  207. 
Eland,  George,  46. 
Episcopal  High  School,  164-166. 
Extension  work.     See  Demonstra- 
tion Work. 

Farr,  R.  R.,  administration  of,  246- 

251. 
Flat  Hat  Club,  89. 

Gordon,  William,  47. 

Grammar  schools,  curriculum  of,  12. 

Griffin,  Rev.  Charles,  84. 


Hampden-Sidney  College,  medical 

department  of,  145. 
Hampton  Norman  and  Agricultural 

School,  349-359. 
Henry  VIII  and  the  monasteries,  3, 

12. 
High  schools,  329,  330. 
Hollins  College,  281-287. 
Howard,  Governor  John,  52. 

Indentured  servants,  17,  20,  24. 
Indigent  children,  105,  114. 
Irishmen,  18. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  and    the    Uni- 
versity of  Virginia,  101. 
and  William  and  Mary  College, 

90. 
first  plan  for  education,  101. 
quoted,  173,  174,  175,  186,  187. 
Jones,  Rev.  Hugh,  quoted,  24,54, 

85,  86. 
Joynes,  Edward  S.,  quoted,   109- 

113,  132-135. 
Junior  colleges,  303. 

Land  grants,  17. 

Lee,  Hugh,  46. 

Literary  Fund,  The,  104-108. 

London  Company,  16,  17,  41,  43. 

Madison,    Bishop   James,   88,   90, 

92. 
Mann  High  School  bill,  324. 
Mary  Baldwin  Seminary,  290-292. 
Mason,  General  John,  quoted,  22. 
Massacre,  Indian,  65. 
Massey,  John  E.,  administration  of, 

253-258. 
Meade,  Bishop,  quoted,  54,  86. 
Medical  inspection,  328. 
Mercer,  Charles  Fenton,  education 

plan  of,  128,  129. 
Monasteries :  in  England,  3. 
in  Virginia,  3. 


380 


INDEX 


Negro  schools,  349-365, 
Negro  slaves,  education,  229. 

Orphans'  Courts,  28,  31,  32. 

Peabody  Fund,  238-240. 

Peasley,  Henry,  47. 

Parmalee,  Elisha,  89. 

Pensions  for  teachers,  331,  332. 

Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society,  89. 

Philosophical  society,  87. 

Physical  features,  influence  on  edu- 
cation, 24. 

Plantation  system,  20. 

Planters,  influence  of,  23. 

Poor  laws,  4,  6. 

Pritchard,  Francis,  47. 

Public  schools,  inauguration  of, 
210. 

Randolph-Macon  College,  151-155. 
Randolph-Macon  Woman's  College, 

293-296. 
Redemptioners,  19. 
Roanoke  CoUege,  166-170. 
Royal  James,  42. 
Ruffner,  Rev.  Henry,  plan  for  state 

education,  219. 
president  of  Washington  College, 

219. 
Ruffner,  William  H.,  218,  219,  226. 
administration  of,  240-245. 

School  funds,  diversion  of,  223. 
Schoolmasters,  licensing  of,  9. 

privileges  of,  7,  8. 
Schools,  charity,  11. 

community,  48. 

early  types  of,  11-15. 

East  India,  42. 

elementary,  114-115. 

free,  31,  40,  41,  43. 

grammar,  11,  12,  14,  36,  37. 

Old  Field,  49. 
Sears,  Dr.  Barnas,  239. 


Servants,  17. 
Smith,  John,  quoted,  16. 
Snignell,  Samuel,  45. 
Southall,     Hon.    Joseph   W.,   ad- 
ministration of,  258. 
State  Board  of  Examiners,  322. 
State  Education  Association,  255. 
State  Normal  Schools:    at  Farm- 
ville,  248,  339. 

at  Fredericksburg,  337. 

at  Harrisonburg,  334-336. 

at  Radford,  338. 

at  Williamsburg,  340. 
Strode  bill,  325. 
Sweetbriar  College,  297-300. 

Taxes,  direct,  5. 
Taylor,  Ebenezer,  46. 
Teachers,  licensing  of,  9. 
pensions  for,  331,  333. 
Technical  schools,  199-209. 
Thorpe,  George,  65. 
Tutors,  26,  53,  57. 
Tyler,  Lyon  G.,  quoted,  97. 

Union  Theological  Seminary,  145. 
University  of  Virginia,  buildings  of, 
187,  188. 

curriculum  of,  182. 

establishment  of,  178. 

fire  of  1895,  194,  195. 

first  faculty  of,  188,  189. 

influence  of,  193,  194, 

new  era  for,  195-198. 

report  of  Commission  on,  179- 
183. 

Virginia  Gazette,  quoted,  87,  88. 
Virginia  Mechanics  Institute,  167. 
Virginia   Military   Institute,    199- 

204. 
Virginia    Normal    and    Industrial 

Institute,  359-361. 
Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute,  204- 

207. 


381 


INDEX 


Washington   and   Lee   University, 

147-151. 
Washington  College,  147-149. 
West  Hampton  College,  300-302. 
William  and  Mary  College,  build- 
ings of,  77. 
colonial  endowment,  74. 
establishment  of,  69,  70. 


William  and  Mary  College  (cont.) 

faculty  of,  91. 

famous  graduates  of,  97,  98. 

location  of,  76. 

royal  endowment  of,  72,  78. 

scholarships,  75. 
Williams  Loan  Fund  bill,  324. 
Wythe,  George,  91. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 

382 


'HE  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a 
few  of  the  Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects 


THE   HOME   AND   SCHOOL   SERIES.  EDITED   BY   PAUL   MONROE 

Education  Through  Play 

By  HENRY  S.  CURTIS,  Ph.D. 

Former  Secretary  of  the  Playground  Association  and  Supervisor  of  the 
Playgrounds  of  the  District  of  Columbia ;  Secretary  on  Recreation  and  other 
Social  Topics 

Cloth,  i2tno,  ill.,  xx  +  360  pages.  Regular  edition,  $/.jo 
Educational  eaition,  $1.25 
"  Education  Through  Play  "  contains  information  which  should  somehow 
be  presented  to  all  parents.  The  book  discusses  the  necessity  of  play,  its  value 
to  the  child's  life,  and  the  education  which  comes  through  it.  It  shows  that 
directed  play  is  protected  play:  play  which  loses  none  of  its  spontaneity  or 
freedom,  but  play  under  a  leadership  whose  influence  is  wholesome,  fair, 
and  clean. 

Practical  Conduct  of  Play 

By  HENRY  S.  CURTIS,  Ph.D. 
Cloth,  i2tno,  ill.,  xx  +  360  pages.     Regular  edition,  $2.00 
Educational  edition,  $1.30 

"  The  Practical  Conduct  of  Play  "  may  be  used  in  connection  with  "  Edu- 
cation Through  Play "  but  it  is  in  no  way  .dependent  on  the  preceding  book. 
This  book  presents  examples  of  work^ffeady  done  in  the  playground  move- 
ment and  gives  detailed  directions  for  the  construction  and  management  of 
playgrounds. 

Froebel's  Kindergarten  Principles 
Critically  Examined 

By  WILLIAM  HEARD  KILPATRICK,  Ph.D. 

Associate  Professor  in  the  Philosophy  of  Education,  Teachers  College 
Columbia  University 

Cloth,  i2mo,  ill.,  xii  -f  218 pages,  $.90 

The  general  aim  of  this  book  is  to  help  spread  the  reform  of  kindergarten 
theory  and  practice.  Its  appeal  is  accordingly  not  only  to  kindergartners  and 
to  the  general  student  of  educational  theory,  but  as  well  to  superintendents  and 
other  directors  of  educational  practice. 


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TEXTBOOK   SERIES  IN  EDUCATION.  EDITED   BY  PAUL   MONROE 

Textbook  in  the  History  of  Education 

By  PAUL  MONROE,  Ph.D. 

Cloth,  8vo,  ill.,  xix  +  yy  2  pages,  $1.90 

The  merits  which  the  author  has  sought  to  incorporate  in  this  book  are : 
(1)  To  furnish  a  body  of  historical  facts  sufficient  to  give  the  student  concrete 
material  from  which  to  form  generalizations.  (2)  To  suggest,  chiefly  by  classi- 
fication of  this  material,  interpretations  such  as  will  not  consist  merely  in  un- 
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inal sources  of  information.  (4)  To  make  evident  the  relation  between  educa- 
tional development  and  other  aspects  of  the  history  of  civilization.  (5)  To 
deal  with  educational  tendencies  rather  than  with  men.  (6)  To  show  the  con- 
nection between  educational  theory  and  actual  school  work  in  its  historical 
development.    (7)  To  suggest  relations  with  present  educational  work. 

Textbook  in  the  Principles  of  Education 

By  ERNEST  NORTON  HENDERSON,  Ph.D. 

Cloth,  8vo,  ill.,  xiv  +  593  pages,  $i.yj 

This  book  presents,  in  a  systematic  way,  the  outlines  of  the  theory  of  edu- 
cation from  the  point  of  view  of  evolution.  It  takes  up  this  conception  at  the 
point  where  it  has  been  dropped  by  other  writers.  It  develops  the  theory, 
reconstructing  it  in  accordance  with  the  latest  scientific  knowledge  of  the 
subject. 

State  and  County  Educational  Reorganization 

By  ELLWOOD  P.  CUBBERLEY,  Ph.D. 

Cloth,  crown  8vo,  xx  +  257  pages,  $1.25 

The  author  presents  the  revised  constitution  and  school  code  of  the  hypo- 
thetical state  of  Osceola  in  order  to  express  in  concrete  form  certain  funda- 
mental principles  relating  to  the  administration  of  public  education.  The 
hypothetical  state  of  Osceola  has  organized  by  a  strong  and  helpful  state 
department  of  education  and  abolished  the  district  system  of  school  adminis- 
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stantial educational  progress  may  be  made. 


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